which of the following is true of the loop of Henle? choose all that apply: more water reabsorption, more sodium reabsorption, creates the osmotic gradient in the medulla.

Explain what are countercurrent exchangers? Explain how are they used in the conservation of temperature.  How is it used to extract oxygen in gills?  How is it used to eliminate waste in the Malpighian tubules?  How is a counter current multiplier used to concentrate urine in the kidney?

How do diuretics work to reduce excess fluid in the body?  Describe the mechanisms of action for three types of diuretics.

Thiazide diuretics are a type of drug that act on the sodium transport pump in the distal convoluted tubule, used to treat hypertension and edema. They inhibit sodium and chloride reabsorption by blocking this transporter. Based on your understanding, describe the effects this would have in the relevant structures and functions inside the nephron , the effect it would have on the resulting urine output , and the effect this would have on the blood throughout the body . Use specific terms and structures discussed in class in your answer.

Despite the administration of dobutamine, there was no substantial improvement in urine production after 24 hours. It is a phosphodiesterase, and it is called milrinone. The inhibitor was administered as a bolus dosage of 25 g/kg, followed by a continuous infusion of 0.1 g/kg/min to improve inotropy. Blood pressure, urine output, and The edema did not get any better. The blood pressure is 90/70 mmHg. The creatinine level in the blood was 3.2 mg/dL, according to the serum chemistry. Which one of them is your favorite? Following the recommended treatment methods will help him improve his condition. A. Start peritoneal dialysis as soon as possible (PD) B. Hemodialysis should be started. C. Activate continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration for the first time (CVVHDF) D. To begin, take tolvaptan. E. Begin the process of aquapheresis.

Sodium ion reabsorption from the filtrate into peritubular blood across the cells of this component of the nephron (marked by the black asterisk) Choose from the following: (A) is regulated by the binding of the hormone aldosterone (B) is not regulated by any hormone, but is determined by sodium ion concentration and filtrate flow

The secretion of organic anions------------------. is driven by the sodium gradient established by the apical membrane Na+ /K + pump They are taken from the cell into the tubule in exchange for di/tricarboxylates. they are removed across apical membrane via cation antiporter all of the above None of the above

Renin is secreted in response to hypovolemia or to an increase in the osmolality of the blood. Provide three possible mechanisms by which these conditions may stimulate rennin secretion. What are the consequences of increased rennin secretion that lead to increased aldosterone secretion? Present this sequence of events. Why are angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) used as a common therapy for hypertension? How do they influence blood pressure? Are plasma levels of renin elevated or depressed in a patient with Conn’s disease? Why?

One type of diuretic given to people with high blood pressure, renal disease and congestive heart failure are thiazide-type diuretics. These drugs inhibit sodium ion reabsorption by inhibiting the transport in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. A) What does it mean to inhibit the transport of sodium ions in the loop of Henle? B) Explain how this inhibition of sodium ions in the loop of Henle could help increase urine production.

the major difference between plasma and interstitial fluid is the absence of plasma proteins from the interstitial. explain how this affects solute distrbution and what kind of correction you would do it if you were measuring solute concentration