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Nucleotides
It is an organic molecule made up of three basic components- a nitrogenous base, phosphate,and pentose sugar. The nucleotides are important for metabolic reactions andthe formation of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are essential biomolecules present in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and viruses. They carry the genetic information for the synthesis of proteins and cellular replication. The nucleic acids are of two types: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The structure of all proteins and ultimately every biomolecule and cellular component is a product of information encoded in the sequence of nucleic acids. Parts of a DNA molecule containing the information needed to synthesize a protein or an RNA are genes. Nucleic acids can store and transmit genetic information from one generation to the next, fundamental to any life form.
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- Proto-oncogenes can be converted to oncogenes in a numberof different ways. In some cases, the proto-oncogene itselfbecomes amplified up to hundreds of times in a cancer cell.An example is the cyclin D1 gene, which is amplified in somecancers. In other cases, the proto-oncogene may be mutatedin a limited number of specific ways, leading to alterations inthe gene product’s structure. The ras gene is an example of aproto-oncogene that becomes oncogenic after suffering pointmutations in specific regions of the gene. Explain why thesetwo proto-oncogenes (cyclin D1 and ras) undergo such differentalterations to convert them into oncogenes. For each of the terms in the left column, choose thebest matching phrase in the rigf. satellite DNA 6. small basic proteins that bind toDNA and form the core of thenucleosomeg. chromatin 7. complex of DNA and proteinswhere spindle fibers attach to achromosomeh. cohesin 8. beadlike structure consisting ofDNA wound around histoneproteinsi. histones 9. protein complex that protectstelomeres from degradation andend-to-end fusionsj. shelterin 10. regions of a chromosome thatare distinguished by stainingdifferencesht column.a. telomere 1. protein complex that keepssister chromatids togetheruntil anaphaseb. G bands 2. origin of replication in yeastc. kinetochore 3. repetitive DNA found near thecentromere in higher eukaryotesd. nucleosome 4. specialized structure at the endof a linear chromosomee. ARS 5. complexes of DNA, protein, andRNA in the eukaryotic nucleusA. Somatic cells are aslo called B. In irder to clone a gene, a gene is inserted into a:
- a. What is your epigenome (i.e. epigenetics)? b. Does lifestyle affect your epigenome? Explain c. Does your epigenome change with age? Explain d. What is epigenetic therapy? Is it working? Explain Edit View Insert Format Tools Table 12pt v Paragraph v BIUA 2v T? Addre DELLMany human cancers result when a normal gene mutates and leads to uncontrolled growth (a tumor). Genesthat cause cancer when they mutate are called oncogenes. Chemotherapy is effective against many tumorsbecause it targets rapidly dividing cells and kills them.Unfortunately, chemotherapy has many side effects,such as hair loss or nausea, because it also kills many ofour normal cells that are rapidly dividing, such as thosein the hair follicles or stomach lining.Many scientists and large pharmaceutical companiesare excited about the prospects of exploiting theRNAi pathway to selectively inhibit oncogenes in lifethreatening tumors. Explain in very general terms howgene-silencing therapy might work to treat cancer andwhy this type of therapy would have fewer side effectsthan chemotherapyOur government has finite funds to devote to cancer research.Discuss which of the following areas of research you think shouldreceive the most funding.A. Identifying and characterizing oncogenes and tumorsuppressorgenesB. Identifying agents in our environment that cause cancerC. Identifying viruses that cause cancer D. Devising methods aimed at killing cancer cells in the bodyE. Informing the public of the risks involved in exposure tocarcinogensIn the long run, in which of these areas would you expect successfulresearch to be the most effective in decreasing human mortalitydue to cancer?
- The family of a sixth-grade boy in Palo Alto, California, wasinformed by school administrators that he would have to transferout of his middle school because they believed his mutation ofthe CFTR gene, which does not produce any symptoms associatedwith cystic fibrosis, posed a risk to other students at the schoolwho have cystic fibrosis. After missing 11 days of school, a settlementwas reached to have the boy return to school. What ethicalproblems might you associate with this example?I. The retinoic acid receptor (RAR) is a transcription factor that is similar to steroid hormone receptors. Thesubstance (ligand) that binds to this receptor is retinoicacid. One of the genes whose transcription is activatedby retinoic acid binding to the receptor is myoD. Thediagram that follows shows a schematic view of theRAR proteins produced by genes into which one oftwo different 12-base double-stranded oligonucleotides had been inserted in the ORF. The insertion site(a–m) associated with each mutant protein is indicatedwith the appropriate letter on the polypeptide map.For constructs encoding proteins a–e, oligonucleotide 1(5′ TTAATTAATTAA 3′ read off either strand) wasinserted into the RAR gene. For constructs encoding proteins f–m, oligonucleotide 2 (5′ CCGGCCGGCCGG 3′)was inserted into the gene.NH2 f g h i j k l m COOHa b c d eThe wild-type RAR protein can both bind DNA and activate transcription weakly in the absence of retinoic acid(RA) and strongly in RA’s presence. Each…E VG ✓H NA MATEN Match each letter (A through G) to its description. B A ya pada saat ada para a H F காலிமாம்ம் P S —— 1. Receptor 2. RNA 3. Lysosome 4. DNA 5. Ribosome 6. Ligand 7. Kinase domain 8. Nucleus 9. Mitochondria 10. Phosphorylated transcription factor 11. Dephosphorylated transcription factor 12. Plasma membrane
- . The website CBioPortal (http://www.cbioportal.org)is an exceptionally useful program for visualizing thecancer genes and genomes of tumors from thousandsof patients with different kinds of cancer that havebeen analyzed by whole genome sequencing and insome cases, by RNA-Seq.Go the the CBioPortal site and click All underSelect Cancer Study and in Enter Gene Set typePTEN, then hit Submit. On the page that is returnedyou will see how the coding region of the PTEN geneis altered in tumors investigated in the various studies.Hitting the tab Mutations will let you see the detailsof these mutations relative to the PTEN protein, whilethe tab Expression lets you see how the gene’s expression (in terms of cDNA reads) is altered in individual tumor samples.a. Is PTEN an oncogene or a tumor suppressor gene?What kinds of evidence lead you to this conclusion?b. What kinds of cancer are most likely to involvealterations of PTEN?c. How would you identify patients whose tumorcells are particularly…Label this flow chart of mutagenesis: 3 2 Replication Eppoes mutation' Column A Column B 1. 1 a. DNA damage by mutagens. 2. b. Proliferation. 3. 3 c. Correct repair. 4 d. The cell attempts to repair the DNA. e. Permanent change to the DNA sequence. f. Incorrect repair. 6. 6 g. Benign tumor. h. Metastasis. i. No change to the DNA sequence. in 4. 5.The process of cell modification from a generalized cell to one that performs a specific task is known as recombinant DNA O gene expression O cell differentiation gene development