Chapters 12-13 Summary

Genetic code found in the bones of Neanderthals (hominids that lived between 30,000 and 200,000 years ago) shows they were similar to humans. Other evidence suggests that they buried their dead, made and used tools, and walked upright. They vanished for unknown reasons, but scientists believe that humans interbred with Neanderthals.

Humans have several characteristics that set them apart from other species. One is that they solve problems by working together. Kolbert meets Svante Pääbo, a Swedish geneticist who believes that humans have a “madness gene” that causes them to be restless and ambitious.

Kolbert believes humans are altruistic; they work to save endangered species. She has seen this in action all over the world. However, it’s possible that humanity’s impact on Earth may ultimately lead to its demise. Human inventiveness could provide creative solutions to this crisis, but saving people’s lives in the present is much less important, Kolbert asserts, than saving the planet future generations will inherit. The Sixth Extinction will alter life for years to come.

Chapters 12-13 Analysis

By comparing humans to Neanderthals in Chapter 12, Kolbert provides a new perspective on the basis of human nature. Although Neanderthals are often depicted as crass and of low intelligence, evidence points to the fact that they were likely much more civilized than scientists previously suspected. By contrasting Neanderthals—who went extinct for unknown reasons—with humans, Kolbert further develops the idea that humans have an innate quality that not only helped them survive but that has caused them to completely alter the face of the planet.

Where much of the book has had an undercurrent of doom in a world headed for mass extinction, the final chapter provides a spark of hope. The key to humanity is inquisitiveness and innovation, features that have likely changed the planet but may perhaps play a leading role in saving it. While this ending is far from assured, it is nevertheless possible that humans will be able to harness their ingenuity, recognize their role in a potential mass extinction, and reverse course. However, Kolbert closes with a sobering idea: people are running out of time. Just because humans have found ways to survive thus far does not mean they are not on the verge of causing their own extinction.