The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure. Introduction: The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy. The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

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Answer 1

Question

Chapter 44, Problem 1Q

Summary Introduction

To review:

The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure.

Introduction:

The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy.

The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

Expert Solution & Answer

Explanation of Solution

When the light is reflected on the Hcrt neurons, they get activated and fire an action potential. The Hcrt cells are genetically modified, created by the fusion of ChR2 proteins to the cells. On exposing the ChR2 expressing hcrt cells to the light, the ChR2 protein gets activated, which then leads to activation of these cells.

As Hcrt cells are involved in the wakefulness, the mice get awakened from the sleeping situation. A 1 second of light exposure is similar to the 1 Hertz (Hz) of light frequency. More latency is observed between the awakened and the sleeping states of mice when exposed to the light only for a second.

Conclusion

Thus, the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes on getting exposed to the light. The ChR2 expressing hypocretin neurons get activated because of photoactivation of the ChR2 protein, as a result, the hcrt neurons fire action potentials.

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The apical surfaces of hair cells are exposed to an unusual extracellular fluid called endolymph. Endolymph is relatively similar in ionic composition to cytoplasm: Select one: O O a. it is high in Na+ (-150 mM), low in K+ b. It is high in K+ (250 mM), low in Na+ c. it is high in K+ (150 mM), low in Na+ d. It is high in Ca 2+ (-250 mM), low in Na+ (-2 mM), and relatively low in Ca 2+ (100 μM). (-4 mM), and relatively low in Ca 2+ (150 µm). (2 mM), and relatively low in Ca 2+ (100 µm). (2 mM), and relatively low in K+ (150 M).

After establishing the importance of cGMP in the signaling pathway of the photoreceptor cells, the researchers wish to identify the exact target of cGMP. The researchers suspect that cGMP binds to an ion channel, causing the observed change in the membrane potential between the dark and the light conditions but they are not sure which one. The researchers determine the movement of three different ions (sodium, chloride and potassium) as a function of their respective electrochemical gradient across the plasma membrane: ● Sodium tends to enter the cell Chloride tends to enter the cell Potassium tends to leave the cell The researchers therefore propose three simple hypotheses for the effect of cGMP on the membrane potential of the rod photoreceptor cell: ● Hypothesis A: CGMP binds to a sodium-channel, that opens and lets sodium ions diffuse inside the cell. Hypothesis B: cGMP binds to a chloride-channel, that opens and lets loride ions diffuse inside the cell. Hypothesis C: cGMP binds to…

Clostridium tetani toxin blocks the exocytosis of GABA. A. What anatomical part of a pre-synaptic neuron would be affected by this? B. How would a post-synaptic neuron’s likelihood of experiencing an action potential be affected by this toxin? C. Explain, using at least TWO of the following terms: threshold, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, summation, IPSP, EPSP, exocytosis

Answer 2

Question

Chapter 44, Problem 1Q

Summary Introduction

To review:

The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure.

Introduction:

The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy.

The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

Expert Solution & Answer

Explanation of Solution

When the light is reflected on the Hcrt neurons, they get activated and fire an action potential. The Hcrt cells are genetically modified, created by the fusion of ChR2 proteins to the cells. On exposing the ChR2 expressing hcrt cells to the light, the ChR2 protein gets activated, which then leads to activation of these cells.

As Hcrt cells are involved in the wakefulness, the mice get awakened from the sleeping situation. A 1 second of light exposure is similar to the 1 Hertz (Hz) of light frequency. More latency is observed between the awakened and the sleeping states of mice when exposed to the light only for a second.

Conclusion

Thus, the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes on getting exposed to the light. The ChR2 expressing hypocretin neurons get activated because of photoactivation of the ChR2 protein, as a result, the hcrt neurons fire action potentials.

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Answer 3

Question

Chapter 44, Problem 1Q

Summary Introduction

To review:

The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure.

Introduction:

The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy.

The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

Expert Solution & Answer

Explanation of Solution

When the light is reflected on the Hcrt neurons, they get activated and fire an action potential. The Hcrt cells are genetically modified, created by the fusion of ChR2 proteins to the cells. On exposing the ChR2 expressing hcrt cells to the light, the ChR2 protein gets activated, which then leads to activation of these cells.

As Hcrt cells are involved in the wakefulness, the mice get awakened from the sleeping situation. A 1 second of light exposure is similar to the 1 Hertz (Hz) of light frequency. More latency is observed between the awakened and the sleeping states of mice when exposed to the light only for a second.

Conclusion

Thus, the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes on getting exposed to the light. The ChR2 expressing hypocretin neurons get activated because of photoactivation of the ChR2 protein, as a result, the hcrt neurons fire action potentials.

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Answer 4

Question

Chapter 44, Problem 1Q

Summary Introduction

To review:

The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure.

Introduction:

The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy.

The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

Expert Solution & Answer

Explanation of Solution

When the light is reflected on the Hcrt neurons, they get activated and fire an action potential. The Hcrt cells are genetically modified, created by the fusion of ChR2 proteins to the cells. On exposing the ChR2 expressing hcrt cells to the light, the ChR2 protein gets activated, which then leads to activation of these cells.

As Hcrt cells are involved in the wakefulness, the mice get awakened from the sleeping situation. A 1 second of light exposure is similar to the 1 Hertz (Hz) of light frequency. More latency is observed between the awakened and the sleeping states of mice when exposed to the light only for a second.

Conclusion

Thus, the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes on getting exposed to the light. The ChR2 expressing hypocretin neurons get activated because of photoactivation of the ChR2 protein, as a result, the hcrt neurons fire action potentials.

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Answer 5

Chapter 44, Problem 1Q

Summary Introduction

To review:

The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure.

Introduction:

The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy.

The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

Expert Solution & Answer

Explanation of Solution

When the light is reflected on the Hcrt neurons, they get activated and fire an action potential. The Hcrt cells are genetically modified, created by the fusion of ChR2 proteins to the cells. On exposing the ChR2 expressing hcrt cells to the light, the ChR2 protein gets activated, which then leads to activation of these cells.

As Hcrt cells are involved in the wakefulness, the mice get awakened from the sleeping situation. A 1 second of light exposure is similar to the 1 Hertz (Hz) of light frequency. More latency is observed between the awakened and the sleeping states of mice when exposed to the light only for a second.

Conclusion

Thus, the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes on getting exposed to the light. The ChR2 expressing hypocretin neurons get activated because of photoactivation of the ChR2 protein, as a result, the hcrt neurons fire action potentials.

Answer 6

Chapter 44, Problem 1Q

Summary Introduction

To review:

The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure.

Introduction:

The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy.

The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

Expert Solution & Answer

Explanation of Solution

When the light is reflected on the Hcrt neurons, they get activated and fire an action potential. The Hcrt cells are genetically modified, created by the fusion of ChR2 proteins to the cells. On exposing the ChR2 expressing hcrt cells to the light, the ChR2 protein gets activated, which then leads to activation of these cells.

As Hcrt cells are involved in the wakefulness, the mice get awakened from the sleeping situation. A 1 second of light exposure is similar to the 1 Hertz (Hz) of light frequency. More latency is observed between the awakened and the sleeping states of mice when exposed to the light only for a second.

Conclusion

Thus, the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes on getting exposed to the light. The ChR2 expressing hypocretin neurons get activated because of photoactivation of the ChR2 protein, as a result, the hcrt neurons fire action potentials.

Answer 7

Chapter 44, Problem 1Q

Summary Introduction

To review:

The effect of light (shown for 1 second) on the nerve cell membrane potential and on the rate of firing of the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons, and the response of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) protein to the light exposure.

Introduction:

The sleeping process involves interactions between anterior hypothalamus (sleep promoting region) and posterior hypothalamus (region responsible for wakefulness). Hypocretin is released from the lateral hypothalamus and plays an important role in wakefulness. The loss of Hcrt is related to narcolepsy.

The Hcrt cells are targeted genetically by ChR2 protein to deliver the light, deep inside the brain of freely moving mice. The photo stimulation of the brain awakes the sleeping mice.

Answer 8

Expert Solution & Answer

Explanation of Solution

When the light is reflected on the Hcrt neurons, they get activated and fire an action potential. The Hcrt cells are genetically modified, created by the fusion of ChR2 proteins to the cells. On exposing the ChR2 expressing hcrt cells to the light, the ChR2 protein gets activated, which then leads to activation of these cells.

As Hcrt cells are involved in the wakefulness, the mice get awakened from the sleeping situation. A 1 second of light exposure is similar to the 1 Hertz (Hz) of light frequency. More latency is observed between the awakened and the sleeping states of mice when exposed to the light only for a second.

Answer 9

Expert Solution & Answer

Answer 10

Expert Solution & Answer

Answer 11

Conclusion

Thus, the membrane potential of the nerve cell changes on getting exposed to the light. The ChR2 expressing hypocretin neurons get activated because of photoactivation of the ChR2 protein, as a result, the hcrt neurons fire action potentials.

Answer 12

Ch. 44.1 - Prob. 1R Ch. 44.1 - Prob. 2R Ch. 44.1 - Prob. 3R Ch. 44.2 - Prob. 1R Ch. 44.2 - Prob. 2R Ch. 44.2 - Prob. 3R Ch. 44.2 - Prob. 4R Ch. 44.3 - Prob. 1R Ch. 44.3 - Prob. 2R Ch. 44.3 - Prob. 3R

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