Species A, B, and C are related according to the phylogeny below (A,(B,C)).  Species A and C diverged 10,000,000 generations ago, and species B and C diverged 100,000 generations ago. All three species are diploids. The mutation rate in their genomes is 1×10−9 mutations per basepair per generation. A gene found in all three species is 1,000 bp long. 75% of mutations in the gene are deleterious and 0% are beneficial. Use this information to answer the following questions. a)  Species A has 100,000 diploid individuals. How many new mutations arise per basepair per generation in species A? b) What is the gene’s neutral mutation rate per basepair per generation? c)  What is the expected rate of fixation of neutral mutations in the gene? d)  How many neutral substitution do you expect to observe if you compared the gene between species A and C?

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Genetic Evolution

Sexual reproduction produces distinct population variations. Heredity determines the traits and qualities to be passed down to the progeny. Over time, this variation within-species is also affected by the process of human evolution. The study of how genetic variation leads to evolutionary changes is known as genetic evolution. If a trait helps an organism to survive and reproduce, it is more likely to be passed down the generations. It is rare that such traits result in a completely distinct set of traits in descendants than the ancestral population; this can result in the emergence of a new species.