Viruses: How Does Antimicrobial Resistance Happen?

Antibiotic resistance evolves in bacteria. Charles Darwin created the theory of evolution which focused on natural selection being the key factor of how things change. Natural selection is when organisms that are better suited to the environment are able to reproduce successfully. Evolution is descent with modification. Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics by a mutation. The bacteria that did not die from the antibiotic inherited the gene from an ancestor that made it resistant. Since the other bacteria is dying faster than the resistant bacteria, the resistant bacteria are able to multiply

When non-resistant bacteria are exposed to an antibiotic, most of them die. But due to the increase of mutations some of the bacteria are becoming resistance to the antibiotic. The bacteria are all subject to natural selection. Natural selection is as simple as saying that the bacteria that have not developed a mutation or resistance that helps them to survive die. The ones that do, survive and pass on the mutation to the next generation. This means that we are constantly having to adapt our antibiotics because so much of the mutation is getting passed along. The flu vaccination is a good example of how mutations are carried over and how the vaccine had to be changed every year to fight the ever changing virus. Some strains

Other ways people can contract this disease is by spending time in a place infected or touching where an infected person had touched. Because of this, it is crucial to disinfect and prevent areas from getting contaminated as the bacteria can stay on a surface long after the infected person has left. “Most healthy adults may be able to infect other people beginning one day before symptoms develop and up to five to seven days after becoming sick.” (CDC.gov 2013). Influenza changes all the time and most often mutates in two ways, through antigenic drift, which are many small mutations over a large period of time and the other being antigenic shift, which is a large, sudden mutation that often contributes to pandemics as they are unexpected. Due to how frequently it mutates, different strains are often identfied after their host of origin (bird, pig), country origin, strain number or year of

Each year, over 200,000 people are hospitalized due to flu related complications and thousands more are affected by it (Liao, Y et al., 2013). The flu is caused by the influenza virus which has a unique history and evolution pattern. This virus has been around for hundreds of years and has survived dozens of vaccines and different treatment methods. It has the ability to evolve and become resistant to vaccines using a variety of methods such as reassortment and antigenetic drift allowing it to still be a problem hundreds of years later.

Flu viruses are always changing and mutating. After about two weeks, the flu vaccine itself causes antibodies to develop in the body. Those antibodies provide protection against

There are there types of influenza A and C or the most severe types and B which is the most common, Luckily not the to severe. The virus works by first attaching to the outside of a host cell. It injects its RNA into the cell. Unfortunately our cells treat the RNA like they should. It translates the viral genes using the cell’s ribosomes and enzymes. Now the virus can take the cell over and use it to reproduce more viruses. Sooner or later it releases the new nauseating viruses and they search for another cell to raid.

Influenza virus can mutate in two ways, Antigenic shift and Antigenic drift. The genome is in 8 segments of RNA. Each of those 8 segments must be packaged within the viral particle in order for it to be viable. Influenza virus uses an RNA polymerase enzyme that doesn’t proofread. This allows for point mutations, incorrect bases are inserted into the genome which causes minor changes in 1 to 2 amino acids. Mutations cause slight variations in the shapes of the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. This prevents neutralizing antibodies from binding. If a person were exposed to the new mutant strain, their immune system won’t be able to protect them. This is called antigenic drift and may happen anytime the virus replicates. Point mutations are most

Since the news hit that Playboy is pulling all nude photos in the spring of next year many news companies all have shared their own view, however we are only going to look at two of them. Starting with the headlines from The New York Times, Playboy, an Aging Roue, Finds That Nudes Are Now Old News as it Seeks Readers. There is also CNN who states “Larry Flynt thinks Playboy’s nude-free move is ‘ludicrous’.” In both articles we will explore playboy on how it came about and the new direction it is going, along with how, Hugh Hefner and Cory Jones, one of the top editors at Playboy came to this decision, as well as any bias’ that the articles may have and how it relates to sociology.

This constant Genetic change allows the virus the ability to continuously evade the immune system of its host(humans), which in turn causes people to be vulnerable to the flu viral infection throughout their lifespan. The process and diagram stated above works in a certain way, when infected with the flu virus the body’s T cells when in combat with the virus begins to develop antibody against that specific strain of influenza virus, but as the virus begins to adapt over the season it slowly begins to mutate by changing its structural proteins and

One of the most renowned elements of entertainment was the theatre. Getting the chance to see a movie was a great experience not easily forgotten. In the book To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, Dill, a small child, is able to see the movie Dracula. Shortly after seeing the movie he runs away from home, and knowing that his friends understand his love of the movies, he tells Jim, a close friend,“‘Think they’re still searchin’ all the picture shows in Meridian.’ Dill grinned”(140). A level of pride is developed in Dill when he can gloat to everyone that he has watched a picture show. For the more mature audience during the Dust Bowl Era, attending a movie was a simple diversion. Claire Ellerton states,“During the depression going to the movies

Imagine this scenario, you and a friend are at a party. The host offers you and your friend to smoke a joint. Thinking that it’s a cigarette you and your friend both take one, without realizing it’s actually marijuana. You and your friend enjoy it so much thinking it’s a different brand of cigarette that you end up smoking more than usual. Before leaving you grab a handful of marijuana. You and your friend end up driving back home, but you two are pulled over by an unexpected police check. You both are arrested for driving under the influence of marijuana, you get another charge for having a large amount of an illicit substance. This essay defends the claim that, the state should regulate drugs by decriminalizing them.

The process of antimicrobial resistance is when it is used to prevent and treat viral infections. Antimicrobial resistance occurs through gene mutation, assistance from other bacteria, or natural resistance. As much as some people are at greater risk than others, nobody can fully avoid the risk of microbial resistant infections. Normally, infections with resistant organisms are hard to treat. Such infections will require the patient to use alternative medication or higher doses, both of which are more costly, more toxic,

Flu viruses mutate and when they do, genetic material is exchanged with other flu viruses, a process called reassortment. This process enables the new virus to pass the species barrier from wild birds to domesticated animals such as pigs, and chickens. When small changes in these virus genes take place over a long period of time, it is called an Antigenic drift. Seasonal influenza viruses change by antigenic drift all the time as the virus replicates. Generally, the small genetic changes in these viruses are closely related to each other, meaning they share the same antigenic properties and an immune system exposed to a similar virus will have the ability to recognize and fight off infection and building up antibodies to fight the virus. The other type of change is called “Antigenic Shift” which happens once in a while. Antigenic shift is an abrupt, major change in the influenza A virus, resulting in a mutant virus subtype with new characteristics from both the animal and human strains that are so different from the original that people have no immunity protection against it. This problem was seen during the outbreak of the Avian Influenza A(H5N1) and the A(H7N9) viruses which claimed approximately 60% of the of the 690 people who contracted these strains of viruses between

Six years and two months, that was the amount of time it had been since my father was officially diagnosed cancer free. What should have been a joyous occasion had instead become a fight for life. Radiation had damaged most of the muscles in his throat and the one hundred, or so, scopes that had been done had introduced drug resistant viruses into his system. Each year a simple cold would knock him out of commission for weeks, however the year 2010 was different. Common colds became pneumonia and pneumonia meant extended hospital stays. With each stay his body deteriorated more and more. As I sat in the cold stark room of Penn University Hospital I could barley recognize the man in the bed. He was rail thin with pale white skin and virtually no muscle mass at all. I noticed the covers had fallen down off of his body and so I went to pull them up being extremely careful not to disrupt the tracheostomy tube. My body and my mind were exhausted so I decided it was time to head home.

In this brief, the reader will see the pros and cons of antibiotics in the food we eat. They will see the what people fear about eating meat that has had a antibtiocs injection, and how this has come to happen. How the producers or the Food and Drug Administration (F.D.A) can fix the problem of having antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The reader will also be able to understand how there are many great advantages from using antibiotics in the animals but there a drawbacks and steps that are being taken to prevent the bacteria from getting into the human body when consumed. They reader will learn what the F.D.A does to try to prevent the bacteria from being consumed. The reader will also get an understanding to improve the animal production