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1 Explaining Night Drifting Among Hong Kong Teens Student’s Name University Course Professor Due Date

2 Explaining Night Drifting Among Hong Kong Teens Introduction Night drifting is an alarming youth challenge in Hong Kong. This phenomenon involves youngsters hanging around entertainment and public places at night, individually or in groups (Groves et al., 2014). Most of these teenagers are usually throwaways or homeless. According to previous studies on this population, the majority of young night drifters are running away from home or have unhealthy relationships with their parents and family members (Lee, 2000). The lesser portion engages in night drifting because of peer pressure or in search of excitement (Lee, 2000). As of 1998, there were 20,000 night-drifting teens in Hong Kong (Lee, 2000). This phenomenon has grown and become more prevalent over time, with new statistics revealing that the number of young night drifters has tripled to between 50,000 and 60,000 every night (Groves et al., 2014). This increase has drawn much attention from the media and the public, as the rise in the number of night drifters has sequentially led to an increase in related problems. Some of the night drifting behaviors, such as vandalism, promiscuous activities, harassment of passers-by, bullying, and random chasing of people, are rising (LEE, 2010). Furthermore, there have been more incidences of illegal activities, particularly the possession and use of illicit drugs (Groves et al., 2014). This paper discusses night drifting among Hong Kong teens. It elucidates the definition of night-drifting, provides a social background, and explicates some of its causes. This is then followed by a literature review on night drifting in Hong Kong and overseas, and a discussion of social band theory and theory of boredom. Next is a discussion of findings from previous literature. The paper concludes by identifying key research objectives and issues and a

3 conclusion. This essay is based on the statement: Explaining night drifting among Hong Kong Teens. Literature Review What is night drifting? Definition of the Phenomenon . Night drifting refers to late-night life or nocturnal activities in establishments that generally do not require permission to enter or have no supervision by guards or adults (Lee, 2010). Lee (2002) argues that night drifting behaviors are associated with the changes in the life patterns as societies develop. Life night have a pattern in most of the developed areas and it causes young night drifters’ phenomenon. Night drifting behavior involves indulgence in theft, prostitution, drug abuse, bullying, harassment of by- passers, vandalism, among other activities (Yeung, 2018). It is a phenomenon common in both developed and developing countries. Night drifting behavior is most common among teenagers. The phenomenon was first developed in 1990s among the Hong Kong academia to explain the perceived youth trend on the margins of the society (Wilson et al., 2016). According to Lee (2010), the operational definition of a young night drifter (YND) in Hong Kong is a young individual of 18 years or below, who is fond of loitering outside in the night between midnight and six in the morning with the intent of seeking fun or one who has eluded home sporadically without parental consent (Lee, 2010). YNDs can be grouped into three categories. One night stand drifter (nocturnal activities are less than once per week), occasional night drifter (night-time activities are once to twice a week), and persistent night drifter (activities of the night are three or more times every week) (Lee, 2010). Groves et al., (2014) claims that the YNDs are mostly at the margins of the completing basic education and employment. Therefore, having left school, they are either temporarily

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4 employed, under-employed, or unemployed in the blue-collar jobs. While there are young expatriate occupying the same hours as young night drifters, but do so consuming drinks and food in up-market areas in bars, restaurants, and cafes, they are not categorized as young drifters. Those classified as YNDs by social workers include the teens around streets, parks, podiums, cybercafes, and convenience storers in the surroundings of public housing estates (Groves et al., 2014). In this view, YNDs are not just teens that are out at night but there are specific features that define them. The concept of YND has created significant concerns in the society due to the associations that culture in different societies assigns night and darkness. Yeung (2018) claims that in various cultures across the globe the night with darkness is associated with uncertainty, fear, unsafe, and different negative connotations. As such, night drifting makes the young participants ‘youth-at-risk’ and need interventions to help them. The concept is unique in Hong Kong since most of the young people who run away from their families to loiter at night do so because of fun-seeking tendencies other than challenges at home. Yeung (2018) argues that a majority of the YNDs are children from stable families that do not experience any bad family back ground such as divorced and violent families. Therefore, it increases concerns since the causes of night life among the teens in Hong Kong seems to be different from other regions. Hong Kong Situation. The majority of night-drifting youths in Hong Kong are males, 81.7%, while females comprise 18.3% (Lee, 2010). The average age is 16 years, and virtually half of them, their highest educational attainment was junior secondary level, 48.4 % (Lee, 2010). Most night drifters are residents in the territory they loiter, while others have migrated from other districts. In regards to family, most previous research literature revealed that most YNDs have intact families; however, the former perceives their family members as indifferent

5 and uncaring, a situation that propels them towards night drifting. Another finding was that 95% of night drifters have a close peer group also engaged in nocturnal activities. In Hong Kong, night drifting activities begin in the early teens, 12-15 years (Lee, 2010). The average length of late-night life ranges from six to twelve months, but the duration of engagement varies with each teenager (Lee, 2010). Previous research literature implicates social and physical environmental factors for the prevalence of night drifting. Some of the social factors include alienation by family members, dissatisfaction with ordinary life, peer influence, and boredom (Lee, 2002). Prior researches also reveal that open areas without surveillance facilitate the night-time gathering of Hong Kong youths. Oversea Situation. Factors perpetuating juvenile night-time crime in Hong Kong are nearly similar to those in America and Iceland. Young night drifters overseas also implicate the lack of parental surveillance, peer pressure, and unhealthy family relationships as factors that facilitate night drifting activity. There are several differences between Hong Kong and overseas situations regarding the definition of a night drifter and regulations imposed to curb nocturnal activities. In America, a young night drifter is an individual 17 years or younger who loiters in public and entertainment places for fun between midnight and 5 A.M on weekends and between 10 P.M and 5 A.M on weekdays (Wilson et al., 2016). Night drifters in America range between 15 and 17 years, and there is no mention of their average education level. Again, a higher percentage of night drifters in Hong Kong come from stable families that are free from violence and divorce while a majority of night drifters in the American society comes from broken families characterized by divorce and violence (Yeung, 2018). In Hong Kong the night drifting phenomenon among the youth is largely driven by peer pressure and the need for fun. In the United States it is highly driven by the need to get away from home to avoid the

6 issues surrounding their families (Pratt et al., 2011). The two overseas countries also impose curfews to restrict youths from committing crimes or being victims of crime (Wilson et al., 2016). These curfews deter teens from loitering in public places during curfew hours, reduce youth opportunities for engaging in nocturnal activity and make it easier for parents to also enforce curfew individually (Wilson et al., 2016). Furthermore, the possibility of being fined or sanctioned discourages youths from loitering during curfew hours. There are, however, mixed results regarding the efficacy of imposing curfew to reduce youth night drifting. Social Bond Theory This theory suggests that delinquent behavior emanates from a broken or weakened bond to society (Cusick et al., 2016). It was developed by Travis Hirschi back in 1969 and has remained a major paradigm in the study of criminology. According to Hirschi, attachment to people, commitment to typical institutions, involvement in routine activities, and belief in standard norms and values symbolize the social bonds that deter individuals from committing crimes (Cusick et al., 2016). The social bond theory is grounded on the basic perception that humans naturally fall towards delinquency. Hence, it questions the main reason that prevents people from deviating from established societal norms. Hirschi claims that the stringer the levels of social control and the stable the social bonds networks are, the more likely individuals are to act within the defined standards and expectations (Pratt et al., 2011). The social bond theory refers majorly to delinquent adolescents; thus, it contradicts the notion that deviant adolescents exert pressure and influence on their peers. Therefore, based on the social bond theory, the main cause of delinquency among adolescences is not peer influence but their attachment to others, involvement in meaningful activities, belief in social norms, and commitment to social values

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7 and norms (Lindberg et al., 2017). This theory can be used in analyzing the onset and development of criminal activities. Attachment : Hirschi’s social bond theory postulates that persons with a stable and strong attachment to other people in society are less likely to deviate from established social norms. On the other hand, individuals considered to have week attachments are likely to be unconcerned regarding the wishes of others (Siler & Caputo Levine Mentor, 2019). Therefore, they tend to deviate and violate societal norms and expectations. Cusick et al., (2016) argue that if a person is attached to his or her family, friends, and community institutions, he or she is less likely to engage in deviant behaviors which can distress the established attachments. It is also claimed that individuals with stronger attachments to their peer groups are likely to engage in activities associated with the group regardless of their conformity to the social norms (Siler & Caputo Levine Mentor, 2019). Therefore, the degree of attachments established between friends and family members and its variance influences delinquent behaviors among the young individuals in society. Involvement : Hirschi argues that the amount of time structurally spent in socially approved tasks and activities decreases the available time for deviance. Therefore, individuals who are actively engaged in activities such as employment and household tasks simply have less opportunity and time to participate in delinquent behaviors such as drug abuse (Siler & Caputo Levine Mentor, 2019). On the other hand, people who have more time due to unemployment or underemployment are easily enticed to participate in deviance. Therefore, ensuring that teenagers are actively involved in meaningful activities is a crucial tool towards stopping them from participating or being enticed to get involved in deviant behaviors such as violence, night drifting, and drug abuse. Lindberg et al., (2017) argue that involvement not only limits the time

8 of a young person to engage in delinquent behaviors but also distracts having negative thoughts which may lead to such acts. Overall, ensuring that teenagers are engaged in meaningful and socially approved activities such as education, volunteering services, and religious activities can help reduce delinquencies. Commitment : According to Hirschi commitment refers to the investment a person has in social institutions and activities. He argues that the commitment construct is founded on the notion that there is a relationship between commitment level and deviant propensity (Siler & Caputo Levine Mentor, 2019). In this case, an individual investing energy, resources, and time into conforming to social expectations and norms such as pursuing education and being a productive member of the society is less likely to participate in deviance compared to a person who does not make such an investment. According to Hirschi augments people with heavy investments in commitments have a lot to lose than an individual who invests less or does not invest completely (Lindberg et al., 2017). As such, deviant behaviors like alcohol and drug abuse among other actions are not appealing to people with strong commitments. However, an individual with less or no investment in social norms and expectations finds deviant behaviors to be okay because they have nothing to lose. Belief : Belief is the last element of social bond theory and is associated with the level of trust an individual has in the moral validity in the shared social norms and values. Hirschi claims that individuals who strongly believe in the social norms and values are less likely to deviate (Lindberg et al., 2017). Nonetheless, those who challenge or question some of the values and norms are highly likely to deviate from them. Siler & Caputo Levine Mentor, (2019) claims that adherence to social norms and values and believing in them is associated with lower deviance probability. Nonetheless, it is argued that substance abuse happens can when people exaggerate

9 the belief and ignore implications as well as rules. For instance, an individual that beliefs in using a certain drug to relieve stress and anxiety tend to abuse it and ignoring the legal rules associated with it (Cusick et al., 2016). In this case, it is important to balance between believes and help promote positive believes among teenagers. Studies show the link between the four elements of social bond theory and deviance. Empirical studies on social bond theory show that there is a strong relationship between deviant behaviors and attachment as well as commitment (Byrd, 2016). Besides, other studies demonstrate the link between conforming behavior and belief. Again, it is evident from various studies that involvement combined with delinquent peers relates strongly with deviant behaviors independent of other variables (Byrd, 2016). Therefore, there is adequate research to demonstrate the link between deviant behaviors and the four elements of social bond theory. However, the critics of social bond theory illustrate that the model ignores the individual causes of deviant behavior. For instance, people committing white-collar crimes are often well integrated into society and possess strong bonds particularly at the level of commitment and involvement (Byrd, 2016). Some sociologists use this theory to explain that criminal behavior and delinquency require a form of motivation, in that, disconnect between attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief creates the impetus to offend (Pratt et al., 2011). This theory has been applied in identifying factors that cause delinquency. The theory postulates that bonds formed in an adult setting, for instance, marriage, deter people from engaging in adulthood crime (Cusick et al., 2016). Similarly, people who form bonds at the workplace are also less likely to commit crimes (Cusick et al., 2016). Thus, the theory forms a basis to which criminal psychologists can determine the social bond gaps in a delinquent adult.

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10 The social bond theory can be used to predict criminal behavior in adulthood. Parent- child bonds have been found to protect children from engaging in delinquent acts (Pratt et al., 2011). Similarly, children from foster care who did not form social bonds during adolescence are more likely to engage in criminal activity in adulthood (Pratt et al., 2011). These findings illustrate that patterns of social bonding can be employed in determining the future possibility of delinquency among youths. In the Hong Kong situation, the social bond theory is consistent with most previous research findings. Researchers reported that most night drifters feel alienated from family members due to lack of understanding and frequent conflicts (Lee, 2002; Lee, 2010). Constant disagreements between household members hinder the formation of bonds and the ability of the latter to develop a sense of attachment. This sequentially causes the young individuals to engage in delinquent acts such as night drifting. Additionally, Hong Kong policymakers also define a night drifter as one who stays away from home occasionally without parental approval (Lee, 2010). Physical separation from parents negatively affects the attachment of a child to their caregiver. According to the social bond theory attachment involves emotional and physical closeness to parent or guardian (Pratt et al., 2011). Distancing from parents increases the risk of children engaging in criminal activity. Most night drifters were found to be dissatisfied with ordinary life and desired more adventure and fun. Based on the social bond theory, these youngsters may have felt left out from routine activities, and in a bid to feel more involved, they engaged in night drifting with their peers. Participation in night drifting fulfilled their desire for involvement and participation. Previous research also implicates peer influence as a vital social factor that contributes to night drifting. Most night drifters estrange themselves from their families to seek companionship with their peers as they perceive the latter are more fun and exciting. Distancing from family members

11 ultimately weakens the bond and attachment of night drifters to their families. Hirschi’s theory postulated that a weakened bond to society, in this case, family structure, leads to the emergence of delinquent behavior. Peer influence weakens the family bond, thus increasing the risk of engaging in criminal activity. Several researchers also employed the social bond theory to explain how peer influence causes night drifting. The argument presented was that some of the night drifters feel the need to belong to a group (Pratt et al., 2011). Thus, when they are presented with an opportunity to join a night drifting gang, they barely hesitate as they perceive it as an opportunity to be committed to something bigger than them. Theory of Boredom This theory explains why humans engage in certain activities when they are bored (Malizia, 2018). The relationship between boredom and delinquent behavior has not been fully been explored. Nevertheless, the available empirical evidence denotes that there is a direct connection between the two. Boredom permeates everyday life; however, it does not always lead to truancy, delinquency, or suicide (Malizia, 2018). are several controversies about the conceptualization of boredom, whether it is an emotion, a transitory negative state, or a drive. The explanation that stood out the most was that boredom signals the need for internal and external stimulation to satisfy some sort of need that the mind or body requires (Malizia, 2018). A previous study of juveniles in detention centers reported that most juvenile criminals expressed the desire to relieve boredom as the main origin of their criminality (Bench & Lench, 2017). 13.2 % of youths incarcerated for shoplifting said they did so to relieve boredom, while 13.7% charged with trespassing said their reason was to reduce boredom and experience thrills Newton, 2001). Additionally, 29% of youths charged with automobile theft said their offenses were driven by the desire for excitement and to relieve boredom (Newton, 2001). Based on these study

12 findings, it is safe to state that boredom entices individuals to seek stimulation from any source regardless of whether it is legal or not. According to Lee (2002), most night drifters express a lack of excitement in their life. This causes them to search for excitement through nocturnal activities. Researchers also explain how this excitement further perpetuates criminal activity. According to Newton (2001), the thrilling sensation and excitement experienced during nocturnal activities acts as an incentive and increases the possibility of future participation. Though boredom has been stated as a cause of night drifting, only a few studies address how boredom causes night drifting among Hong Kong teens. It is a concept that has not been sufficiently recognized as a fundamental basis for empirical research. Most prior research focuses on traditional causes like poverty, poor parenting, unemployment, and delinquent peers with little attention on boredom (Malizia, 2018). There is also no significant data analysis to substantiate boredom as a causal factor of night- drifting in Hong Kong. This highlights the need for future research to investigate how boredom causes night drifting among teens. Further research on the role of boredom in night drifting would be beneficial for practical and theoretical reasons. It would also inform intervention measures designed to help young night drifters in Hong Kong. Boredom and Social Meaning Barbalet (1999) claims that boredom is considered a meaningfulness safeguard and critical defense against meaninglessness. The significance of boredom in the process of feeling anxiety is that it does not just define meaninglessness but it is also authoritative towards meaning. It is argued that the meaninglessness’ sociological awareness is longstanding as is the relationship between boredom and meaninglessness. Barbalet (1999) argues that the emotional support boredom meaning is often overlooked in the social meaning consideration and its

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13 purpose as well as forms. Boredom’s role in both motivating and indicating the loss of meaning or directing actors towards meaning highlights the significance of meaning in the social action and interaction systems. Therefore, Boredom is an emotional imperative to and the basis of meaning in any given social process. Barbalet (1999) indicates that boredom entails a lack of crucial interests in engagements or events as well as dullness experience. Boredom has another dimension of agitated feeling that symbolizes and expresses the distress of the subject when they find no interest in their circumstances or activities (Barbalet, 1999). Boredom, Crime, and Criminology Research demonstrates an association between crime and boredom. Studies demonstrate that summer months are characterized by increased crimes as a result of boredom. However, the association between deviance and boredom is a field that is not widely explored despite a rise in alarm as a result of increasing deviant acts among young people. Ferrell (2004) argues that the association between boredom and deviance is always associated with elements and consequences of various social and dynamic factors which may affect the personal sphere and reactivity of the person. With an absence of sufficient political channels to express deprivations, the young people resort to deviance. Steinmetz et al. (2017) examined the correlation between adolescents being bored and increased risk to take part in deviant behaviors and found that bored teens are vulnerable to participating in deviant and extreme behaviors. Boredom is said to affect young men more than older men explaining the reason why many bored teens are likely to engage in crime (Steinmetz et al., 2017). Studies reveal that people believe that young individuals commit crimes since they do not have anything to do. A survey showed that six in ten youth and eight in ten parents believe that young individuals have inadequate things to do in their lives. Seven in ten parents believe that

14 young individuals commit crimes since they have nowhere to go and nothing to do. Malizia (2018) claims that gambling and other deviant behaviors are considered a short way out of boredom which can appeal significantly to the idle rich and unemployed or underemployed persons experiencing it. Ferrell (2004) argues that criminologists have not paid significant attention to explore the association between crime and boredom. However, the little available research can offer a foundation for future research and studies to explore this field. Literature Review Findings Not much research has been dedicated to explaining night drifting among Hong Kong teens. However, prior research findings are useful in developing a basic understanding of this phenomenon. Based on this literature review, one can conclude that night drifting emanates from several social and environmental factors, such as family problems, peer influence, and lack of supervision. The theory of boredom and the social bond can also be employed to elucidate night drifting among teens. The two theories provide a solid basis for understanding the psychological basis of nocturnal activities. According to prior research, boredom is a leading causative factor for night drifting (Malizia, 2018). On average, 70% of night drifters involved in previous research state that their participation was mainly driven by a search for excitement (Lee, 2010). These findings are consistent with the theory of boredom. Another leading cause was peer influence and the need to accompany friends (Lee, 2010). Young night drifters explained that they felt lonely and bored at home and participated in night activities to relieve their boredom and loneliness. Notably, researchers also explained how excitement experienced during night drifting encourages the continuation of delinquent acts (Bench & Lench, 2017). However, there is not much empirical evidence to substantiate these claims.

15 Concerning family, most night drifters in Hong Kong are estranged from their kin. Some are avoiding enforcement of parental control or overwhelming family problems. A significant proportion is also avoiding physical punishments or expulsion by family members. These findings are consistent with the social bond theory, which postulates that criminal behavior stems from a broken or weakened social bond (Cusick et al., 2016). This literature review also revealed the come common places for nocturnal activities in Hong Kong. These areas have two common characteristics in that, they lack surveillance and have no limited access (Lee, 2010). These places include leisure parks near residential areas, 24-hour convenient stores, private property like homes of friends, entertainment joints open after midnight, among others (Lee, 2010). This information is beneficial to helping agents committed to helping young night drifters. Research Gaps and Objectives There are few studies about night drifting among Hog Kong teens. Prior research available dates back to several years. This shows that the concept of night drifting has not yet received sufficient recognition as an alarming issue affecting modern-day teens (Bench & Lench, 2017). There is a need for further research to investigate night drifting among teens. This information would provide more insight into the development of intercession services. It would also be instrumental in expanding and updating the existing knowledge of night drifting. Previous researches done in Hong Kong do not discuss the use of restriction measures like curfews, fines, or sanctions to reduce nocturnal activities. The majority of researchers only elucidate on services that would be needed to reduce the number of YNDs (Lee 2002; Lee, 2010). Thus, there is a need for further research to investigate whether restriction measures

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16 applied in overseas countries would be effective in Hong Kong. Future research should also focus on identifying novel intercession measures that are relatable to YNDs. Another research gap is the lack of significant data analysis to substantiate the claim that there is a relationship between boredom and youth night drifting (Malizia, 2018). This is a flaw that can be rectified by future research. According to previous studies, 70 % of offenders report that they engaged in criminal activity due to boredom (Newton, 2001). For that reason, its role as a causative factor cannot be neglected. There is also a need for future research to investigate differences in boredom levels among males and females. Much of the evidence provided for these differences is speculative, indicating that there is a need for more comprehensive investigations. Previous research also reports male predominance in night drifting activities in Hong Kong (Lee, 2002). Males comprise 81.7%, while females make up 8.3% (Lee, 2002). These differences in gender involvement would make an interesting basis for future research. Conclusion Nightlife patterns are gradually becoming a trend for Hong Kong teens. A large number of entertainment joints, convenient stores, and fast-food restaurants seem to facilitate the increase in nocturnal activities (Lee, 2010). Social and physical environmental factors known to cause drifting behavior include alienation from family, dissatisfaction with ordinary life, peer pressure, boredom, availability of open gathering areas, and lack of supervision (Lee, 2010). The social environmental factors interrelate with physical environmental factors to cause night drifting behavior (Lee, 2010). Theory of social bond and theory of boredom can be employed to explain how delinquent behaviors emanate from a weakened social bond or boredom, respectively (Cusick et al., 2016; Pratt et al., 2011). Literature review findings reveal that not much research has been done on night drifting among Hong Kong teens. For that reason, there is a need for

17 further research to expand the current knowledge and improve understanding of night-drifting among teenagers.

18 References Barbalet, J. M. (1999). Boredom and social meaning. The British journal of sociology, 50(4), 631-646. Bench, S., & Lench, H. (2017). On the Function of Boredom. Behavioral Sciences , 3 (3), 459– 472. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs3030459 Byrd, K. M. (2016). Binge drinking in and out of college: An examination of social control and differential association on binge drinking behaviors between college students and their non-college peers. Sociological Spectrum, 36(4), 191-207. Cusick, G. R., Havlicek, J. R., & Courtney, M. E. (2016). Risk for arrest: The role of social bonds in protecting foster youth making the transition to adulthood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 82 (1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2011.01136.x Ferrell, J. (2004). Boredom, crime and criminology. In Cultural criminology (pp. 179-194). Routledge. Groves, J. M., Siu, K., & Ho, W.-Y. (2014). The “Post-80s Generation,” “Young Night Drifters,” and the construction of a generic youth subject in Hong Kong. Journal of Youth Studies , 17 (6), 829–846. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2013.878795 LEE, F. (2000). THE “NIGHT DRIFTING TEENS” — A QUEST FOR SOCIAL WORK. The Hong Kong Journal of Social Work , 31 (01n02), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1142/s021924629700003x Lee, F. (2002). Teens of the Night: A Study of Young Night Drifters in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development , 8 (1), 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650993.1998.9755777

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19 Lee, F. (2010). Working with Young Night Drifters in Hong Kong. In 2010 Joint World Conference on Social Work and Social Development (pp. 1–8). http://c4e.hkcss.org.hk/user/PW4.pdf Lindberg, M. A., Fugett, A., Adkins, A., & Cook, K. (2017). Tests of theories of crime in female prisoners: Social bond and control, risk taking, and dynamic systems theories. International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology, 61(3), 282-309. Malizia, N. (2018). Boredom and Social Deviant Behavior: An Empirical Study. Advances in Applied Sociology , 08 (02), 174–187. https://doi.org/10.4236/aasoci.2018.82010 Newton, J.-A. (2001). A boredom theory of youth criminality (pp. 1–96). Edith Cowan University. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1334&context=theses_hons Pratt, T. C., Gau, J. M., & Franklin, T. W. (2011). Key ideas in criminology and criminal justice . Sage. Siler, A., & Caputo Levine Mentor, D. (2019). A Study on Substance Abuse Among Juveniles: An Inside Look on the Correlation Between General Strain Theory, Social Bond Theory, and Substance Abuse. Steinmetz, K. F., Schaefer, B. P., & Green, E. L. (2017). Anything but boring: A cultural criminological exploration of boredom. Theoretical Criminology, 21(3), 342-360. Wilson, D. B., Gill, C., Olaghere, A., & McClure, D. (2016). Juvenile Curfew Effects on Criminal Behavior and Victimization: A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews , 12 (1), 1–97. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2016.3 Yeung, C. S. (2018). Young night drifters in Sham Shui Po. HKU Theses Online (HKUTO).

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