A201_PM7
.pdf
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School
Purdue University *
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Course
251
Subject
Industrial Engineering
Date
Apr 3, 2024
Type
Pages
25
Uploaded by CaptainComputerEel9
Team Name
Team Number
RAAAW
A201
AAE 251: Introduction to Aerospace Design
Project Milestone 7
Due Thursday November 2
nd
, 11:59 PM ET on Brightspace
Instructions
Answer each question in this Project Milestone assignment as a team and record your team’s response in the “Team Response” box
under each question. Complete each question in full sentences.
Leave the “Peer Review Comments” box empty when your team submits your Project Milestone assignment. You will use these
boxes for the three Peer Reviews in the semester.
Upload your google doc link on Brightspace by the due date specified in this assignment. Only one team member needs to submit
on behalf of the entire team.
1
Scanning Camera Selection
Research and list characteristics of three scanning cameras for the search and rescue mission and list the characteristics of
each one (i.e. Mass, Resolution, Gimbal/No Gimbal, etc.). Using a logical, quantitative-based selection process, select one of the
cameras for your mission and report your rationale for this selection.
Team Response
Peer Review Comments
2
ROHAN
Surveillance Camera #1:
https://infraredcameras.com/products/fmx-320-p-series
-
320 x 240 pixel resolution
-
Operates < 6W power
-
Functions in wide range of temperatures
-
Weight < 520 grams
-
5 to 95% humidity range (non condensing)
Surveillance Camera #2:
https://infraredcameras.com/products/8640-p-series
-
640 x 512 pixel resolution
-
Operates < 1 W power
-
Functions in wide range of temperatures
-
Weight = 72 grams
-
5 to 95% humidity range (non condensing)
Surveillance Camera #3:
https://infraredcameras.com/products/8640-broadband
-
640 x 512 pixel resolution
-
Operates < 1 W power
-
Functions in wide range of temperatures
-
Weight = 37 grams
-
5 to 95% humidity range
Decision Making Process:
-
Decision matrix
3
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Criteria
Weight
FMX 320
P-Series
8640 P-Series
8640
Broadband
Resolution
5
5
5
5
Power
Requirement
4
3
5
5
Weight
4
3
4
5
Weather
Resistance
5
5
5
5
Totals
74
86
90
The four criteria for this decision matrix are as displayed above. The rationale behind them is
as follows. Resolution and weather resistance are of primary importance. The UAV needs to
be able to consistently detect lost individuals. Weather resistance is defined as a combination
of temperature survivability and range of operable humidities. Weight and power
requirements are still important but slightly secondary. The scores for each option in each
category range from 1 to 5 and are multiplied by the weights and totalled.
NOTE: FOV (field of view) is lens dependent. Lens of choice is 8 mm manual focus lens
from same manufacturer (80
o
by 60
o
)
Final Selection: 8640 Broadband Infrared Camera
4
Scanning Aircraft Additional Payload Determination
Beyond the camera, the scanning aircraft must carry the required supplies and other components to properly complete the
mission. In this exercise, you will research the electronic components of typical UAVs and surveillance drones and add them to
your total payload. Such electronics include important sensors and communication equipment (i.e. flight computer for flight
path control, sensors, navigation equipment, communication systems, etc.). We are not concerned with the component level
design of the aircraft so do NOT include individual components such as wires, connectors, or bolts. Assume those are
accounted for in the sizing code. We are more interested in a high-level view of what sensors and electronics you determine
will be needed to operate these airborne vehicles in the given environment. Cite all your sources and share images of your
components where available.
Team Response
Peer Review Comments
5
Component #1: 1018 Adafruit Accelerometer
Mass: < 5 grams
What does it do?
-
Provides readings for accelerations of objects in three axes.
Why is it Important for this Mission?
-
Gives operators information about orientation / movement in different axes that may
be required for stabilization.
https://www.pcb.com/sensors-for-test-measurement/accelerometers/miniature-piezoelectric/tria
xial/356a4x#:~:text=The%20accelerometers%20are%20hermetically%20sealed,g%20or%2010
0%20mV%2Fg
.
https://www.digikey.com/en/products/detail/adafruit-industries-llc/1018/4990760?utm_adgroup
=&utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=PMax%20Shopping_Product_Lo
w%20ROAS%20Categories&utm_term=&utm_content=&utm_id=go_cmp-20243063506_adg-
_ad-__dev-c_ext-_prd-4990760_sig-CjwKCAjwkY2qBhBDEiwAoQXK5S0U3TdPbLxtsA2nO
tblDMZr574wCN32rFC-1gjZK0r22gbiHomMFxoCYKkQAvD_BwE&gad_source=1&gclid=C
jwKCAjwkY2qBhBDEiwAoQXK5S0U3TdPbLxtsA2nOtblDMZr574wCN32rFC-1gjZK0r22g
biHomMFxoCYKkQAvD_BwE
6
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Component #2: LR-D1 Altimeter
Mass: 300 grams
What does it do?
-
Provides accurate readings of the altitude of the UAV
Why is it Important for this Mission?
-
Altitude considerations will need to be made during the mission to account for flying
through certain environments and maintaining an optimal height for finding lost
individuals.
https://www.unmannedsystemstechnology.com/company/ainstein/lr-d1/
7
Component #3: RDQ BN880 GPS Module
Mass: 10 grams
What does it do?
-
Provides satellites positioning and and compass direction
Why is it Important for this Mission?
-
Being able to keep track of the GPS and provide information
of its direction is important for mission monitoring and ensuring that the drone can
reach certain locations
https://www.racedayquads.com/collections/gps-units-modules/products/rdq-bn-880-flight-contr
ol-gps-module-dual-module-compass-with-cable
Component #4: EchoFlight ESA Radar
https://www.unmannedsystemstechnology.com/company/echodyne/echoflight-esa-radar/
Mass: 730 grams
What does it do?
-
Employs radar to help UAV avoid obstacles and other craft
Why is it Important for this Mission?
-
Collision avoidance is crucial to ensure that the UAV does not get damaged and can
continue its search and rescue operations.
-
Component #5: Raspberry Pi 4 Model B
Mass: 46 grams
What does it do?
-
The Raspberry Pi 4 Model B is a powerful
single-board computer that can handle complex
computations required for navigation, sensor data
processing, and communication.
Why is it Important for this Mission?
8
-
An onboard computer like the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B can process data from various
sensors in real-time, control the UAV’s flight path, and handle communication
protocols. Its compact size and low power consumption make it an ideal choice for this
application
Component #5: TBS Crossfire Micro TX V2 Starter Set
Mass: 100 grams
What does it do?
-
This is a long-range Radio Control (RC) link system
that provides reliable and robust communication
between the drone and the ground control station
Why is it Important for this Mission?
-
Maintaining a strong and stable communication link
between the UAV and its operators is crucial for
successful mission execution. The TBS Crossfire system is known for its long-range
capabilities, making it an excellent choice for this application
9
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Refueling Aircraft Payload Containment
Research and list three possible existing fuel tanks/bladders that are appropriate for holding the refueling aircraft payload.
Ensure your containment system’s internal volume can hold your full payload. Quantitatively choose the best option and
provide the selection rationale.
Team Response
Peer Review Comments
10
Fuel Tank/Bladder #1:
Ready Containment LLC fuel bladders: These fuel bladders are made from highly resistive
materials and are highly customizable. The fuel bladders range in sizes from 25 to 25000
gallons of fuel. Since our fuel payload is around 150-180 (depending on other sizing
parameters), a 30 gallon fuel bladder can accommodate this as it can store up to 180 pounds of
fuel. Their fuel tanks are designed for a wide variety of fuel sources such as diesel, gasoline,
jet fuels (JP 8), Avgas, MO Gas, and more. Additionally, Ready Containment LLC is a
contractor for various outlets such as the military, marine, exploration, emergency response,
disaster relief, and racing industries. Thus, the fuel bladders they can provide are highly
customizable to the customer’s needs.
https://readycontainment.com/product/fuel-bladder/
Fuel Tank/Bladder #2:
ATL's New UAV/ROV Refueler: The refueler comes with a 32-gallon (125-liter)
explosion-proof tank, which is capable of handling a variety of fuel types including Jet,
Diesel, Gasoline, Avgas, and all Bio “E” fuels. The refueler is equipped with both a 12V
electric fuel pump and a manual hand pump, facilitating ease of operation during refueling
processes. Safety features like a firewall and extinguisher, grounding/banding strap, safety
vent, and relief valves are included to ensure safe refueling operations. The refueler is
designed with a H-D fuel delivery hose and a pistol-grip nozzle for precise and efficient
refueling. Given the harsh environmental conditions of tropical rainforests, having an
explosion-proof tank and additional safety features makes this refueler a suitable option for
our mission requirements.
ATL - UAV Fuel Cell Bladder Tanks Fuel Tank/Bladder #3:
ATL Manned Aviation Bladder Tanks: These bladder tanks resist motor gasoline, diesel,
avgas, and JP fuels (including JP-10 and JP-TS ). Other bladders are available for hydrogen,
propane, and alcohol fuels3.
11
These materials meet and exceed the necessary strengths required to pass the stringent
European Aviation Safety Agencies (EASA) ETSO (European Technical Standard Order)
standards and various EASA Certification Specification (CS) regulations.
Manned Aviation | Tough, Lightweight & Flexible Bladder Tanks | Aero Tec Laboratories
(atlltd.com)
Decision Making Process:
●
Decision Matrix
Criteria
Ready Containment
ATL UAV Fuel Cell
Aero Tec Labs
Bladder
Weight
5
5
5
Cost
4
5
4
Customization
5
4
3
Durability
5
4
4
Total
19
18
16
Rationale:
●
Weight is significant as if the bladder is too heavy it can disrupt flight operations or
ability to fly.
●
Cost is significant as the system must be affordable for the start-up company
●
Customization is important for the bladder to be able to be adapted to the UAV
design
●
Durability is important for the bladder to be able to handle harsh and changing
weather conditions in a SAR environment.
Final Selection: Ready Containment
12
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Create the Payload Mass Budget
Create two tables, one for the scanning and one for the refueling aircraft, listing all the respective aircraft’s payload
components with their respective masses. Include a row at the bottom of the table reflecting the total payload mass. This is
called a “mass budget”. For your refueling aircraft, the assumption can be made that the pumps, lines, etc. that make up the
refueling equipment weigh 50 lbs. in total to simplify the analysis.
Team Response
Peer Review Comments
13
Scanning Aircraft Mass Budget:
Components
Weight (lbs)
Camera
0.08
First Aid Supplies
50
Instrumentation and Electronics
2.63
Fuel Bladder
25
Total Weight
77.71
Refueling Aircraft Mass Budget:
Components
Weight (lbs)
Refueling Equipment
50
Instrumentation and Electronics
2.63
Fuel Bladder
25
Fuel Payload
180 (MAX)
Total Weight
257.63 (MAX)
Refine & Finalize Aircraft Path Diagrams
14
Revisit PM4 and finalize your optimal aircraft path figures for both the scanning and refueling aircraft. Please create a
professional-looking digitally drawn diagram (not handwritten) image of the paths that shows the paths across one full scan of
the search area. Make use of different arrow colors, section numberings with external text descriptions, or multiple figures to
convey this information in a readable format.
Note: When making these figures, think about making them in a way that someone with no knowledge of the mission could
understand what your aircraft is doing in just a couple of seconds.
Team Response
Peer Review Comments
15
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For determining the density of the scan path, it is necessary to know the swath width of the scanner. This will
depend on the specific camera model chosen as well as on the altitude of the aircraft. Altitude will be set to
attain a compromise between high scanning resolution at low altitudes and faster coverage at higher levels.
As mentioned in PM 5, lidar sensing is a typical option for surveillance missions. Typical swath width values,
according to source [1] below:
●
240 m (0.13 nm) swath for EAARL lidar flown at a height of 300 m (984 ft) AGL (above ground
level) at 97 knots. Resolution around 1 lidar spot per square meter. Translates to swath width 80% of
cruise height
●
swath width 50% of aircraft elevation for ATM lidar
●
swath width 70% of aircraft elevation for CHARTS lidar, operational altitude 200-400 m (656-1312
ft), cruise speed 125-175 knots.
●
Leica ALS50-II system can scan from 6000 m (19685 ft) with a field of view of 75 degrees, so from
trig, swath width is
m (4.97 nm)
2 · 6000 · tan(75°/2) = 9208
These systems are very precise (e.g. 1 spot per meter), but for our purpose this level of precision is probably
overkill. This means the altitude constraints can be relaxed a bit for better coverage.
The above research was only for reference as our choice of camera is an infrared camera model 8640
Broadband. According to the product specifications, the field of view (FOV) is determined by the lens, with the
largest FOV possible being between
60 and 80 degrees
. Swath width w calculation:
so swath width is between
or 168% of cruise
𝑤/2 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × tan(𝐹𝑂𝑉/2)
2 tan 40° = 1. 68 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
height AGL, and
or 115% cruise height AGL.
2 tan 30° = 1. 15 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
This is actually a very good aperture compared to the Lidar options. However, it is still good to be conservative
as sensing quality diminishes towards the edges of the FOV. We will go with a swath width of
110% cruise
height
which is less than the supposed minimum and provides some
overlap
between successive passes of the
scanning aircraft.
The height at which our aircraft will fly depends on the image resolution we need. This should be worked on
and fine tuned later on but for now let us assume a ground sampling distance (GSD) of 1 m per pixel. This is
comparable to the EAARL lidar mentioned above. Also, using the tool in source [3], we can play around with
satellite imagery of varying resolution, and although the 0.31 m per pixel option is obviously best, the 5 m per
pixel view is also capable of showing overall terrain characteristics. A plane crash in a jungle will leave quite
an evident gash in the trees, so we probably don’t need to go any finer than 1. So:
16
1 meter per pixel means 512-640 meters wide image. Worst case scenario, 512 m. With a swath width 100% of
height, cruise height 512 m or 1679 ft.
Conclusion:
●
Swath width:
0.3 nm
(556 m, 1824 ft)
●
Cruise altitude AGL:
1824 ft
This info lets us determine the scan density. Here is the scan pattern overall. Note it is not to scale and does not
represent the actual scan density, otherwise the drawing would have been cluttered:
17
The refueling aircraft trajectory is variable, depending on the locations of the scanners at a given time.
Consider implementing a simple simulation to visualize the dynamics of the refueling process. (Code available
from a similar project last year). This could help verify coverage, range, and timing assumptions.
Sources:
[1]
https://lacoast.gov/reports/project/BICM4_part1-Lidar%20Systems%20and%20Data%20Processing%20Techni
ques.pdf
[2]
https://f.hubspotusercontent10.net/hubfs/20335613/ici-8640-broadband-data-specifications.pdf
[3]
https://landscape.satsummit.io/capture/resolution-considerations.html#:~:text=Today%20satellite%20imagery
%20can%20be,Planet%20Labs%20Rapid%20Eye%20Satellite
)
18
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Calculate Maximum Range & Endurance
Utilizing the clear and descriptive figures you made in the previous section, document the range/endurance of both the
scanning and refueling aircraft for each mission leg. Make special note of the maximum range and endurance as these will be
your sizing parameters.
Team Response
Peer Review Comments
If we were to expect each scanning UAV to have the full range needed to complete a scan path
from start to finish, the value would be astronomical (334 up-down passes, each nearly 100
nm long). Therefore, the method used in PM 5 is still the best. To recall, the method involved
finding the maximum time elapsed between successive refuelings, with the tanker refueling
each scanner in the same order every time. We found this time to be
7.05 hours
(based on the
maximum distance the tanker would have to cover plus its loiter and turnaround times). At the
cruise speed of 100 knots, this time amounts to 805 nm, which we conservatively rounded to
900 nm
.
For the tanker, the range is the maximum possible distance it would have to cover. We
determined in PM 5 that assuming it has to cross the whole scan region diagonally (141 nm)
to get from each scanner to the next, and assuming 5 such legs (cruising out to each scanner
and back to base), it would travel
705 nm
.
The larger of these two is a
900 nm range
.
19
Revise Sizing Code Inputs
Re-run the aircraft sizing code determined in PM5 with your new updated aircraft parameters and get a new estimate of
takeoff weights for both the refueling and scanning aircraft.
Note: If your PM5 sizing code was deemed to not be satisfactory in PM5 teaching team reviews, this is an opportunity to update
the code and get it reviewed again.
Team Response
Peer Review Comments
20
MATLAB:
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% AAE 251 Fall 2023 Section 002
% PM5 Aircraft Gross Weight Estimation Algorithm
% Authors:
%
Abdullah Alsadi, alsadi@purdue.edu
%
Almos Quevedo Oross, aquevedo@purdue.edu
%
Andrew McDaniel, mcdani76@purdue.edu
%
Rohan Nag, nag4@purdue.edu
%
William Wang, wywang@purdue.edu
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Mission parameters
% scanning UAV parameters
w_0_new_scan = 5000;
% [lb] gross weight guess
w_payload_scan = 77.7;
% [lb] payload weight
range_scan = 900 * 6076.12;
% [ft] distance from one refueling to the next
% tanker UAV parameters
w_0_new_refuel = 5000;
% [lb] gross weight guess
range_refuel = 141 * 6076.12;
% [ft] distance between fuel dumps
% common to both aircraft
a_const = 0.72;
% coefficient for empty weight ratio calculation
c_const = -0.05;
% exponent for empty weight ratio calculation
k_vs = 1.00;
% variable sweep constant
sfc_cr = 0.4 / 3600;
% [1/s] cruise specific fuel consumption piston
sfc_ltr = 0.5 / 3600;
% [1/s] loiter specific fuel consumption piston
ktas = 100 * 1.6878;
% [ft/s] cruise speed 100 knots true air speed
loiter = 15 * 60;
% [s] 15 minute loiter time or endurance
l_d_ratio = 15;
% lift to drag ratio, average from various sources
%% Other values (same for all missions)
21
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w_frac_to = 0.97;
% takeoff weight fraction
w_frac_cl = 0.985;
% climb weight fraction
w_frac_lnd = 0.995;
% landing weight fraction
prop_eff = 0.7;
% propeller power to thrust efficiency, average
err = 0.00001;
% max permissible estimation error (for ending the loop)
%% Conversions
% brake horsepower to propeller thrust SFC
sfc_cr = sfc_cr * ktas / prop_eff / 550;
sfc_ltr = sfc_ltr * ktas / prop_eff / 550;
% mission segment ratios for prop
w_frac_cr_refuel = exp(-range_refuel * sfc_cr / ktas / l_d_ratio);
w_frac_cr_scan = exp(-range_scan * sfc_cr / ktas / l_d_ratio);
w_frac_ltr = exp(-loiter * sfc_ltr / l_d_ratio / .866);
%% Weight estimation loop for scanning aircraft
w_0 = 0;
while
abs(w_0 - w_0_new_scan) / w_0_new_scan > err
% guess for gross weight
w_0 = w_0_new_scan;
% empty weight fraction
w_frac_e_scan = a_const * k_vs * w_0 ^ c_const;
% departure and cruise fuel burn
pi_beta = w_frac_to * w_frac_cl * w_frac_cr_scan;
w_frac_f_scan = 1.06 * (1 - pi_beta);
w_dump = w_frac_f_scan * w_0;
% calculated gross weight
w_0_new_scan = w_payload_scan / abs(1 - w_frac_f_scan - w_frac_e_scan);
disp(w_0_new_scan)
end
22
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%% Weight estimation loop for refueling aircraft
w_payload_refuel = 4 * w_dump;
while
abs(w_0 - w_0_new_refuel) / w_0_new_refuel > err
% guess for gross weight
w_0 = w_0_new_refuel;
% empty weight fraction
w_frac_e_refuel = a_const * k_vs * w_0 ^ c_const;
% departure and cruise out fuel burn
pi_beta = w_frac_to * w_frac_cl * w_frac_cr_refuel;
w_fuel = 1.06 * w_0 * (1 - pi_beta);
% first 3 fuel dumps and cruise to next
for
i = 1:3
pi_beta = w_frac_cr_refuel;
w_fuel = w_fuel + 1.06 * (w_0 - w_fuel - w_dump) * (1 - pi_beta);
end
% last refuel, cruise back and land
pi_beta = w_frac_cr_refuel * w_frac_ltr * w_frac_lnd;
w_fuel = w_fuel + 1.06 * (w_0 - w_fuel - w_dump) * (1 - pi_beta);
% calculated gross weight
w_0_new_refuel = w_payload_refuel / abs(1 - w_fuel / w_0 - w_frac_e_refuel);
disp(w_0_new_refuel)
end
%% Outputs
fprintf([
'Scanning aircraft calculated characteristics:\n\t'
...
'Gross takeoff weight: %.0f lb\n\t'
...
'Payload weight: %.0f lb\n\t'
...
'Empty weight: %.0f lb\n\t'
...
'Fuel weight: %.0f lb\n\n'
],
...
23
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w_0_new_scan, w_payload_scan,
...
w_frac_e_scan * w_0_new_scan, w_frac_f_scan * w_0_new_scan)
fprintf([
'Refueling aircraft calculated characteristics:\n\t'
...
'Gross takeoff weight: %.0f lb\n\t'
...
'Payload weight: %.0f lb\n\t'
...
'Empty weight: %.0f lb\n\t'
...
'Fuel weight: %.0f lb\n\n'
],
...
w_0_new_refuel, w_payload_refuel,
...
w_frac_e_refuel * w_0_new_refuel, w_fuel)
Output:
Scanning aircraft calculated characteristics:
Gross takeoff weight:
254 lb
Payload weight: 78 lb
Empty weight: 139 lb
Fuel weight: 38 lb
Refueling aircraft calculated characteristics:
Gross takeoff weight:
443 lb
Payload weight: 151 lb
Empty weight: 235 lb
Fuel weight: 57 lb
Questions
If you have questions about the project, please include them below. As always, for questions that likely require longer
discussions, ask during class sessions or use the online help sessions. We’re here to help! If you are waiting for answers from
previous PMs, please repeat them here and also email your instructor.
24
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