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Phillip Nguyen Assignment 5 Chapter 11 Review Questions: 1. What is the relationship between the degree of sorting of a sediment deposit and the range in particle size exhibited by the individual sediments? Are well-sorted sediments more likely to be found in continental margins or on the deep-ocean floor? Explain your answer. Answer: The degree of sorting in a sediment deposit is linked to the range in particle size exhibited by individual sediments. Well-sorted sediments are characterized by a narrow range in particle size, where most of the particles are of similar size. In contrast, poorly sorted sediments display a wide range of particle sizes, including both fine and coarse particles. Well-sorted sediments are more likely to be found on continental margins. This is because continental margins typically receive a mix of different sediments from various sources, including rivers, glaciers, and biogenous materials, leading to a broader range of particle sizes and poor sorting. In contrast, deep-ocean floors, far from land, primarily accumulate fine-grained lithogenous quartz grains and clay minerals due to limited biogenous activity and the extended time it takes for these particles to reach the ocean floor. These conditions result in well-sorted sediments with a narrower range of particle sizes. 3. What are the two most common types of biogenous sediment on the ocean floor? Answer: The two most common types of biogenous sediment found on the ocean floor, as per the information provided in the text, are calcareous oozes and siliceous oozes. Calcareous oozes are primarily composed of the hard parts of organisms like coccolithophores, pteropods, and foraminifera. These oozes accumulate in ocean waters shallower than the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), where calcium carbonate (CaCO3) skeletal and shell materials do not dissolve. Siliceous oozes, on the other hand, are composed of the skeletal and shell material of diatoms and radiolaria. Although silica in ocean water is under-saturated, areas with high surface productivity can suppress further silica dissolution, leading to the accumulation of siliceous oozes. These two biogenous sediment types are influenced by factors like ocean depth, chemistry, and nutrient availability, creating distinct distribution patterns across different oceanic regions. 5. Compare the locations and accumulation rates of neritic and pelagic ocean sediment deposits. Answer: Neritic and pelagic ocean sediment deposits, as discussed in the provided text, differ significantly in their locations and accumulation rates. Neritic deposits predominantly occur along continental margins, encompassing bays, wetlands, estuaries, beaches, and deltas. They primarily consist of coarse sediments transported by rivers, with approximately 95% of these sediments being trapped and deposited near the coast. In some cases, these sediments lead to the formation of deltas. These neritic deposits often have faster accumulation rates due to the
proximity of terrestrial sources. In contrast, pelagic deposits are deep-ocean sediments, and their accumulation rate is considerably slower. They primarily consist of fine-grained particles and form particle-by-particle on the deep-ocean floor. On average, it takes about 1,000 years to accumulate a 1-mm thick layer of pelagic sediment, whereas neritic deposits accumulate at a faster rate due to their proximity to land. Additionally, the type of pelagic deposits varies depending on factors like primary production, ocean depth, and chemistry, and they are primarily found beyond continental margins in the open ocean. 7. Why might it be uncommon to find carbonate ooze in the north central Pacific basin? Answer: Carbonate ooze is relatively uncommon in the north central Pacific basin due to specific environmental factors. The carbonate compensation depth (CCD), which marks the depth below which calcium carbonate (CaCO3) dissolves and does not accumulate, is relatively shallow in the Pacific Ocean, especially in the north central region. This is because the Pacific Ocean's deep waters are older, having higher concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide, making calcium carbonate more soluble. As a result, calcareous organisms' shells and skeletons dissolve before they can accumulate as ooze. The Pacific Ocean's unique chemistry and the age of its deep waters contribute to the scarcity of carbonate ooze in the north central Pacific basin. Chapter 11 Critical Thinking questions: 1. What sequence of events could account for the presence of relatively coarse sediments on the deep-ocean floor? Answer: The presence of relatively coarse sediments on the deep-ocean floor can be explained by a sequence of events involving turbidity currents. These currents are initiated by various triggers like earthquake vibrations or sudden large discharges of sediments from rivers. Initially, sediments accumulate on the continental shelf and slope, particularly in areas where river channels are filled with sediment. When these sediments become unstable, they break loose and flow down the continental slope as turbidity currents, similar to land avalanches. As these turbidity currents gain momentum, they entrain more sediment and water, retaining larger particles in suspension. Upon reaching the abyssal plain, the currents slow down, causing sediment deposition in the order of particle size, resulting in graded beds or turbidite layers on the deep-ocean floor. This sequence of events accounts for the presence of coarser sediments in the deep-ocean. 3. How might a lower pH of ocean water affect the abundance of calcareous sediment that accumulates on the ocean floor? Answer: A lower pH of ocean water, which indicates increased acidity, can significantly impact the abundance of calcareous sediment accumulating on the ocean floor. As the pH decreases, the ocean water becomes more acidic, making it challenging for calcium carbonate (CaCO3) skeletons and shells from calcareous organisms to survive in the water column. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases in more acidic conditions. This higher solubility results in the dissolution of the calcareous material before it can accumulate on the ocean floor, particularly
below the carbonate compensation depth (CCD). Thus, a lower pH causes a reduction in the abundance of calcareous sediment, limiting its accumulation on the ocean floor. 5. What is the significance of the carbonate compensation depth (CCD)? How might ocean acidification affect the CCD? Answer: The carbonate compensation depth (CCD) is a crucial concept in oceanography because it represents the depth in the ocean below which calcium carbonate (CaCO3) skeletal and shell materials dissolve and do not accumulate on the ocean floor. The CCD is significant because it determines the limit at which calcareous oozes can accumulate. If the ocean becomes more acidic due to ocean acidification, the CCD becomes shallower. Ocean acidification is caused by increased carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, which make the water more acidic. The higher acidity leads to increased solubility of calcium carbonate, causing calcareous shells and skeletons to dissolve more readily. Consequently, ocean acidification shifts the CCD closer to the ocean's surface, making it more challenging for calcareous sediments to accumulate on the ocean floor, ultimately affecting the composition of sediments and the marine ecosystem. 7.What might the dominant sediment type along the eastern Pacific Ocean basin be? Explain. Answer: The dominant sediment type along the eastern Pacific Ocean basin is likely to be deep- ocean clays or "red clays." This expectation arises from the combination of factors described in the provided text. The Pacific Ocean's unique characteristics, such as the relatively deep ocean floor and the presence of older deep water with high dissolved carbon dioxide concentrations, result in a shallower carbonate compensation depth (CCD) compared to other ocean basins. As a result, calcareous particles dissolve more easily in the Pacific Ocean, making calcareous oozes less common. Deep-ocean clays, which consist predominantly of very fine-grained lithogenous material, are more likely to dominate the sediments in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin far from land. This geological and chemical environment favors the accumulation of these types of sediments in this region. Chapter 12 Review Questions: 1. Summarize the major lessons from the climate past. The major lessons we learned throughout the years would be natural climate variability: Earth's climate has naturally fluctuated over geological time scales due to factors like changes in Earth's orbit, solar radiation, and volcanic activity. Consequences of Rapid Changes: Rapid climate changes can have severe consequences for ecosystems and biodiversity, as evidenced by past mass extinctions. Greenhouse Gas Role: Greenhouse gases play a significant role in driving temperature changes, and the current rate of increase in CO2 is unprecedented. These lessons are essential for understanding and addressing contemporary climate challenges. 3. Describe major features of the current Holocene epoch.
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The current Holocene epoch, as discussed in the chat, is characterized by several major features: Relative Climate Stability: The Holocene is marked by a relatively stable and mild climate compared to earlier epochs, with a relatively constant global mean temperature. Human Influence: Human activities, particularly agriculture and urbanization, have become dominant forces shaping the environment and climate during this epoch. Rising CO2 Levels: The Holocene has seen a notable increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, primarily due to human activities, resulting in enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming. These features highlight the significance of the Holocene epoch, especially in terms of its climate stability and the growing human impact on the Earth's systems. 5. Define global radiative equilibrium and describe its significance for Earth’s climate. Global radiative equilibrium refers to the balance between the incoming solar radiation absorbed by Earth and the outgoing thermal (infrared) radiation emitted by the planet. This equilibrium is significant for Earth's climate because it determines the planet's overall temperature. When Earth is in global radiative equilibrium, incoming solar energy matches the outgoing thermal radiation, leading to a relatively stable climate. Any disruptions in this equilibrium, such as an increase in greenhouse gases, can lead to an energy imbalance, causing global temperatures to rise, resulting in climate change and its associated consequences. Maintaining global radiative equilibrium is crucial for Earth's climate stability. 7. Describe the stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet and the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) is considered less stable than the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS). The WAIS is grounded on a bed that is well below sea level, making it vulnerable to the intrusion of warm ocean waters, which can lead to accelerated melting and ice loss. On the other hand, the EAIS is grounded above sea level, which provides more stability. However, recent research suggests that certain parts of the EAIS, particularly the Wilkes Subglacial Basin, may also be susceptible to instability due to its lower-lying bedrock. Chapter 12 Critical Thinking questions: 1. How are proxy climatic data sources used to reconstruct past climate conditions? Proxy climatic data sources are instrumental in reconstructing past climate conditions. They provide indirect evidence of past climates, such as tree rings, ice cores, sediment layers, and historical documents. By analyzing these proxies, scientists can infer information about temperature, precipitation, and other climate parameters. For example, tree rings offer insights into past temperatures, while ice cores provide records of past atmospheric conditions. Sediment layers in lakes and oceans contain information about past climates and can reveal changes in vegetation and ocean currents. Historical documents can provide anecdotal evidence of past climate events. These proxy data sources are valuable tools for understanding the Earth's climate history and how it has changed over time. 3. How does the thermal inertia of the ocean affect global climate change?
The thermal inertia of the ocean has a significant impact on global climate change. Oceans can absorb and store large amounts of heat energy, which means that they heat up and cool down slowly. This delayed response to changes in external factors, such as increased greenhouse gas concentrations, can mask the full extent of global warming. While the atmosphere responds relatively quickly to these changes, the ocean's gradual adjustment can lead to a continued increase in sea surface temperatures and sea level rise long after the external factors have stabilized. This thermal inertia is a key factor in the long-term consequences of climate change, making it essential to consider the ocean's role in understanding and mitigating the effects of global warming. 5. Explain how a global climate model differs from a numerical weather prediction model. Global climate models and numerical weather prediction models share similarities but are designed for different purposes. Global climate models focus on long-term climate patterns, typically over decades, centuries, or even millennia. These models take into account factors like greenhouse gas concentrations, ocean currents, and solar radiation to predict how the Earth's climate will change over extended periods. In contrast, numerical weather prediction models are focused on shorter-term weather forecasts, ranging from hours to a few days. They consider more immediate atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and wind patterns. While both types of models use similar fundamental principles of physics, they are configured and run differently to address their respective time scales and objectives. Global climate models are especially valuable for studying the impacts of climate change, while numerical weather prediction models are crucial for day-to-day weather forecasting. 7. Describe how polar ice can be a positive feedback under warming and cooling conditions. Polar ice can act as a positive feedback mechanism under both warming and cooling conditions. When the Earth is experiencing warming, the melting of polar ice, particularly from the Arctic and Antarctic regions, reduces the planet's albedo (reflectivity), as ice and snow reflect sunlight back into space. As the ice melts and exposes darker ocean or land, more solar energy is absorbed, leading to further warming, creating a self-reinforcing cycle. In cooling conditions, more ice formation can increase albedo, reflecting more sunlight and cooling the Earth further, again amplifying the cooling effect. This positive feedback mechanism plays a significant role in amplifying climate changes, making it a critical factor in understanding past and future climate variations. Chapter 13 Review Questions: 1. What was the earliest period of major exploration and colonization in the tropical Pacific Ocean? The earliest period of major exploration and colonization in the tropical Pacific Ocean is associated with the voyages of European explorers and navigators, primarily during the Age of Exploration. 3. Why did the field of oceanography experience a boost during World War II and the Cold War?
The field of oceanography experienced a significant boost during World War II and the Cold War due to the focus of industrialized nations on developing new technologies to observe the ocean for national defense purposes. These eras saw considerable investment in oceanographic research to improve weather forecasting, enhance naval strategies, and advance knowledge of oceanic conditions. As a result, many nations supported ocean exploration and the development of observing instruments, leading to the collection and analysis of vast amounts of oceanographic data. Eventually, these data were declassified and made available for peacetime scientific research, contributing to significant advancements in the field of oceanography. 5. How do remote sensing technologies improve the study of the ocean? Remote sensing technologies greatly enhance the study of the ocean by allowing scientists to gather data on various ocean properties without direct contact with the objects or areas of interest. These technologies encompass Earth-orbiting satellites and automated observing platforms like underwater microphones and high-frequency radar systems. They provide the means to monitor surface currents, waves, sea-surface temperature, ocean surface wind speed, and even subsurface properties. By collecting and transmitting data from vast oceanic regions, remote sensing enables researchers to better understand and track oceanic processes, enhance weather forecasting, observe climate change, and investigate oceanic phenomena, including marine species migrations and environmental changes. 7. What are the major research areas of the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP)? The International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) focuses on four primary research areas. These include Earth's climate system, deep-sea biosphere exploration, Earth dynamics such as plate tectonics, and studying Earth hazards like earthquakes. IODP builds upon its predecessors, with its international collaboration involving the United States, Japan, and 21 other nations. The program operates research vessels to drill and recover ocean floor sediment cores, aiding scientists in addressing critical questions related to these four research areas on a global scale. Chapter 13 Critical Thinking questions: 1. Identify three historical seafaring communities, and describe how they used the ocean. Polynesians: Polynesian seafaring communities, such as the ancient Hawaiians, Tahitians, and Maori of New Zealand, used the ocean for exploration, trade, and migration. They developed advanced navigational techniques, including using the stars and ocean currents, and built large double-hulled canoes to voyage across the vast Pacific, settling on numerous islands and establishing trade networks. Phoenicians: The Phoenician seafaring communities, centered around the Eastern Mediterranean, utilized the ocean for trade and exploration. They were skilled shipbuilders and navigators, establishing important trade routes across the Mediterranean and as far as the British Isles. Their seafaring skills played a vital role in connecting various cultures and exchanging goods in ancient times. Vikings: The Vikings, originating from Scandinavian seafaring communities, were known for their extensive use of the ocean for exploration, trade, and even raids. They built sturdy longships that allowed them to navigate rivers and seas,
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enabling them to conduct trade and exploration across Europe, including reaching North America centuries before Columbus. These communities illustrate how various seafaring cultures harnessed the ocean for purposes like trade, exploration, and migration, contributing to the exchange of goods, cultures, and knowledge in their respective regions. 3. How did the 1872–1876 Challenger Expedition serve as a model for the modern scientific study of the ocean? The 1872–1876 Challenger Expedition served as a model for modern scientific oceanography by pioneering the systematic and interdisciplinary approach to the study of the ocean. It marked the first comprehensive global exploration of the ocean, conducting extensive depth soundings, temperature and water sample collection, and biological investigations. This expedition laid the foundation for the modern understanding of oceanography by emphasizing the importance of data collection, international collaboration, and the integration of physical, chemical, and biological disciplines in the study of the ocean. It established a template for future oceanographic research and inspired subsequent expeditions, institutions, and global initiatives dedicated to exploring and understanding the world's oceans. 5. What are the advantages of satellite-based remote sensing over voyages of exploration? Satellite-based remote sensing offers several advantages over voyages of exploration. First, it provides a cost-effective means of continuously monitoring vast and remote areas of the ocean, overcoming the high expenses associated with research vessels. Second, it offers a global perspective and coverage, enabling comprehensive data collection on a planetary scale. Third, it allows for real-time and near-real-time data acquisition, which is valuable for various applications, including weather forecasting, climate studies, and disaster management. Finally, it minimizes human risks and environmental impacts associated with traditional voyages, making it a safer and more sustainable approach to ocean observation and research. 7. What is the significance of the Slocum glider for current and future oceanographic study? The Slocum glider holds significant importance in current and future oceanographic studies for several reasons. This autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) is equipped with sensors to gather essential data about ocean properties, and its ability to descend and ascend in the water column while relaying measurements via satellite enhances our understanding of ocean dynamics. The Slocum glider is especially valuable for studying sea ice, mapping the ocean floor, probing coastal waters, and conducting research in highly energetic ocean systems like current rings. Its cost-effectiveness, continuous operation, and minimal human risk make it a versatile and valuable tool for expanding our knowledge of the world's oceans. Chapter 14 Review Questions: 1. Define Ocean stewardship and name three essential components. Ocean stewardship involves responsible and sustainable management of ocean resources to ensure their long-term health and productivity. Three essential components of ocean stewardship
include Sustainable Fisheries Management: Implementing measures to prevent overfishing, protect marine habitats, and promote responsible harvesting practices to maintain fish populations and ecosystem balance. Ecosystem-Based Management: Taking a holistic approach by considering the interconnectedness of marine species and habitats, aiming to preserve the entire ecosystem rather than focusing solely on individual species. Conservation of Biodiversity: Protecting and preserving the diversity of marine species, including endangered ones, to maintain the overall health and resilience of ocean ecosystems. 3. List the various ways that human activities can adversely affect ocean ecosystems and describe each one briefly. Human activities can detrimentally impact ocean ecosystems through several means: Overfishing: Excessive fishing depletes fish populations, disrupting the balance of marine ecosystems and threatening the survival of certain species. Bycatch: Accidental capture of non- target species in fishing gear, leading to the discard of undersized or unwanted marine life and contributing to the decline of vulnerable species. Introduction of Exotic Species: The intentional or unintentional introduction of non-native species can disrupt local ecosystems, outcompeting native species and causing ecological imbalances. Pollution: Release of pollutants, including plastic waste, chemicals, and oil spills, harms marine life, damages habitats, and poses a serious threat to the overall health of ocean ecosystems. 5. Describe why it is important to protect estuaries. Estuaries are vital ecosystems that serve as nurseries for numerous marine species, playing a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and supporting commercial fisheries. They act as buffer zones, protecting coastal areas from storm surges and providing habitat for diverse flora and fauna. Estuaries also contribute to water purification by filtering pollutants and sediments, enhancing overall water quality. Preserving estuaries is essential for sustaining marine life, safeguarding coastal communities, and ensuring the resilience of interconnected ecosystems. 7. What is bycatch? Identify some of the ways bycatch occurs. Bycatch refers to the unintentional capture of non-target species during commercial fishing activities. It occurs when fishing gear, such as nets or hook lines, captures species other than the intended target. Common ways of bycatch include the accidental capture of undersized or economically less valuable fish, as well as the unintentional trapping of non-target species like sea turtles, dolphins, and marine mammals. Bycatch poses a significant threat to various species and ecosystems, contributing to population declines and ecological imbalances. Chapter 14 Critical Thinking questions: 1. Differentiate between contamination and pollution. Contamination and pollution are terms often used to describe the presence of harmful substances in the environment, but they have distinct meanings. Contamination refers to the introduction of any undesirable substance into an environment, potentially causing harm. Pollution, on the other hand, specifically denotes the presence of substances that adversely affect the normal functioning
of ecosystems, often leading to environmental degradation. While contamination is a broader term encompassing any unwanted presence, pollution emphasizes the harmful impact on the environment and its components. 3. Identify the two different approaches used to evaluate toxicity and discuss the limitations of each. Two approaches commonly used to evaluate toxicity are acute toxicity tests, which assess the immediate harmful effects of a substance on an organism over a short period, and chronic toxicity tests, which examine the long-term effects over an extended duration. However, both approaches have limitations. Acute tests may not reflect the subtler, prolonged impacts of substances, while chronic tests might not capture immediate adverse effects. Additionally, these tests often focus on individual species, overlooking potential impacts on entire ecosystems or interactions between different organisms. 5. How would adherence to the maximum sustainable yield help prevent overfishing? Adherence to the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is crucial in preventing overfishing by setting a harvest rate that allows a fish population to reproduce and replenish itself. MSY establishes an optimal harvest level, balancing the removal of individuals with the species' reproductive capacity. By not exceeding the MSY, fisheries can maintain a sustainable yield over the long term, preventing depletion and collapse of fish stocks. This approach promotes the ecological health of marine ecosystems, ensures ongoing resource availability, and supports the economic viability of fishing industries. 7. Why is the age of a fish an important consideration in the recovery of a fish population that has been depleted by overfishing? The age of a fish is a crucial consideration in the recovery of a depleted fish population because different age classes contribute differently to the overall reproductive success and resilience of the population. Older, larger fish tend to produce more eggs and have higher reproductive output. Focusing on the protection and conservation of older individuals allows for enhanced reproductive potential, ensuring a more robust recovery as these individuals contribute significantly to the replenishment of the fish stock. By prioritizing the preservation of diverse age groups, fisheries management strategies can better support the recovery and long-term sustainability of fish populations affected by overfishing. Chapter 15 Review Questions: 1. How far does the U.S. exclusive economic zone (EEZ) extend seaward from the shore? The U.S. exclusive economic zone (EEZ) extends 200 nautical miles seaward from the shore. 3. Why does the U.S. have the largest EEZ in the world? The United States has the largest Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the world primarily due to the vast additional area contributed by Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and various U.S. Pacific protectorates and islands, including American Samoa and Guam. Despite the lengthy coastlines of the contiguous states along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf of Mexico, the
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significant contribution from these additional territories significantly expands the U.S. EEZ. This extensive maritime territory, covering approximately 7.5 million square kilometers (2.2 million square nautical miles), surpasses the nation's land area and encompasses rich fisheries and substantial mineral wealth. 5. What are the goals of the Coastal Zone Management Program? The goals of the Coastal Zone Management Program (CZMP) in the United States, established by the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act, are to "preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance the resources of the Nation’s coastal zone." This program aims to encourage coastal states to develop and implement plans that achieve wise use of land and water resources in the coastal zone. All eligible coastal states and U.S. territories have federally approved coastal zone management plans, addressing issues such as inventory and designation of areas of concern, definition of permitted land and water uses, control mechanisms for these uses, and guidelines for determining priority uses in coastal areas. 7. What are fossil fuels and how are they generally derived? Fossil fuels, including coal, petroleum (oil), and natural gas, are derived from natural geologic processes that involve the burial, decomposition, compression, and heating of organic matter, such as plants and animals, over millions of years. These processes result in the formation of carbon-rich fuels that humans extract and burn for various purposes, including energy generation, heating, and transportation. The combustion of fossil fuels releases pollutants, notably carbon dioxide (CO2), contributing to environmental challenges such as climate change. Chapter 15 Critical Thinking questions: 1. Describe how the ideas of Dutch legal scholar Hugo Grotius influenced international ocean policy. Hugo Grotius, a Dutch legal scholar, profoundly influenced international ocean policy through his concept of mare liberum, arguing for the freedom of the seas. His ideas, articulated in the early 17th century, challenged the prevailing notion of mare clausum, which supported exclusive rights to certain seas. Grotius' advocacy for the freedom of the seas laid the groundwork for modern principles of international maritime law and influenced subsequent treaties and agreements governing oceanic jurisdiction and access. 3. What are some of the positive or negative political and environmental effects of the establishment of EEZs by UNCLOS? The establishment of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) by UNCLOS has led to both positive and negative political and environmental effects. On the positive side, EEZs provide coastal states with exclusive rights to marine resources, promoting national economic development and sovereignty. However, disputes over EEZ boundaries have led to political tensions and conflicts, contributing to regional instability. Additionally, concerns arise about the environmental impact of increased exploitation within EEZs, potentially leading to overfishing and ecosystem degradation.
5. Why are Antarctica and the surrounding Southern Ocean given special status for exploitation of marine resources? Antarctica and the surrounding Southern Ocean are granted special status for the exploitation of marine resources due to the Antarctic Treaty System. The treaty, adopted in 1959 and now signed by 53 nations, prohibits any new claims of territorial rights and designates Antarctica for peaceful purposes only. This unique arrangement ensures international cooperation and prevents the unregulated exploitation of valuable marine resources in the region. The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), established in 1982 as part of the treaty, further safeguards marine life by managing resources through an ecosystem approach rather than focusing solely on individual species. 7. Describe the trends in global energy consumption and atmospheric CO2 since the 1960s. Since the 1960s, global energy consumption has been on a steady rise, as indicated by the increasing rate of energy consumption. This upward trend, depicted in Figure 15.6, correlates with a rise in atmospheric CO2 levels. The Keeling curve, represented by the Mauna Loa record, reveals a sustained increase in average annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations from about 316 ppm in 1960 to over 400 ppm in 2017. These interconnected trends highlight the close relationship between energy consumption and the rise in atmospheric CO2, underscoring the importance of addressing the environmental impact of human activities.