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The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify which  particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicators, on the other hand, are  specific information that describes the sub-variables.  Examples:  Major variable: Study habits

The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify which  particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicators, on the other hand, are  specific information that describes the sub-variables.  Examples:  Major variable: Study habits

Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)
Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)
5th Edition
ISBN:9780134477961
Author:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White
Publisher:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White
Chapter1: The Science Of Psychology
Section: Chapter Questions
Problem 1TY
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2) The major variable is the central idea of the entire literature. Its sub-variables help specify which  particular aspect of the major variable is being referred to. The indicators, on the other hand, are  specific information that describes the sub-variables. 

Examples: 

  1. Major variable: Study habits 
  2. Sub-variable: Time required for studying, methods of studying, and place for studying
  3. Indicators: Employing patterned time intervals for effective studying: using mnemonics in  memorizing the terms; and studying in one's ideal environment

 

Instructions: Identify the major variables, sub-variables, and indicators of the examples of literature review.

Example 2:  The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals 

(refer to the photo for the details)

 

The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals (Cristobal, 2003) On management roles. A manager of an organization plays various roles that need specific skills and competencies in order for him or her to be effective. According to George (1994), a manager needs the following competencies to be termed as a "total quality manager": 1. Courage. A courageous manager stands up in unpopular ideas, does not avoid confrontations, and gives feedback to subordinates and superiors; his confidence is his own capability; 2. Dependability. A dependable leader follows through, upholds commitments, meets deadlines, takes and accepts responsibilities for actions, admits mistakes to superiors, works effectively with little or no supervision from supervisors, and keeps supervisors informed of his/her progress; 3. Flexibility, Functions effectively in a changing environment, provides stability, remains objective when confronted with many responsibilities at once, and handles several problems simultaneously; 4. Integrity. Adheres to a code of ethics and moral values, behaves in a manner that is inconsistent with organizational climate and professional responsibility, does not abuse management privileges, gains trust and respect, and serves as a model to his or her peers; 5. Judgment. Carries logical and intellectual assessment to reach sound evidence of alternative actions, bases decisions on logical and factual information, and considers the welfare of other people in his or her judgment; and 6. Respect for others. Honors rather than belittles the opinions or works of others and demonstrates a belief on each individual's value regardless of their status in the organization. On management practices. There are five behavioral management practices in order to become effective managers according to Posner (1987). These are as follows: 1. They challenge the process. They are willing to take the status quo. They make mistakes to push innovations. 2. They inspire a shared vision. They have a dream and purpose, a goal, or agenda. They live their lives backwards by studying a practice in their work. They are interested to share passionately that vision and make it happen. 3. They enable others to act. They focus on "we" to build coalition and encourage collaboration. They build teams and empower others. 4. They model the organization. They are clear about their beliefs and act consistently within their beliefs. They show others their values by behaving as they expect others to act. 5. They encourage the heart. They celebrate and offer dramatic encouragement and rewards. They show their members they can win and that winning is exciting. Allen (in De Guiana, 1998) presents only four major functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. He reduced the five functions to four by incorporating Payol's "coordinating" with "organizing"; by changing "commanding" to the less autocratic "leading"; and retaining to planning and controlling. He broke down all four functions into nineteen specific activities: 1. Planning - forecasting, establishing objectives, programming, scheduling, budgeting, formulating policies, and establishing procedures 2. Organizing - developing organization structure, delegating, and establishing relationship 3. Leading-decision-making, communicating, motivating, selecting people, and developing standards, performance measuring, evaluating, and correcting. The school managers are endowed not only with a higher degree of responsibility, but also of discretionary powers. Thus, this responsibility and authority include coordinating all resources of their work group to achieve set goals. They have to organize direct, motivate, communicate, control, evaluate, and develop people in his work group. Leveriza (1995) regards the managers as supervisors or overseers. This is because they deal not only with people but also with objectives. In actual practice, the supervisor is more than a manager or an overseer of people. He is the organization's man responsible for the conduct of others in the achievement of various organizational tasks: the maintenance of quality standard, the protection and care of materials, and the services to be rendered under his control. Likewise, Bittle (1991) looks at the school manager's responsibilities in five directions, enabling them to fill effectively the following five different roles: leaders and trainers of their employees; implementers of ideas; co-workers with other supervisors; subordinates to their own supervisors; and mediators of empioyees' needs. Cieariy, these roies indicate that a manager is noi oniy responsibie for the deveiopment of his people, but also for the maintenance of things, materials, and equipment within the organization. On intrapersonal competency. It is the ability to relate effectively with subordinates, colleagues, superiors, and representatives of other organizations. In the US, an ASCR sponsored research project yielded 12 dimensions of outstanding supervisors, gleaned from the literature of the past 15 years and verified by experts. These are community staff development, instructional program, planning and change, motivating and organizing. observation and conferencing, curriculum, problem-solving and decision-making, service to teachers, personal development, community relation, and research and program evaluation. Telephone surveys were made to confirm further the importance of the 12 dimensions. There was a strong belief in the importance of human relation and that a key to a supervisor's effectiveness is the "love and like of people." A supervisor should be willing to give other people credit for success and should be more of a "cheerleader than a "scorekeeper." Supervisors, according to Pajak (1990), are a very person-oriented activity. They require knowledge and skill but the human element is paramount. As asserted by one of the respondents in his study, "You always have to remember that people are important." Intrapersonal competency is termed by Holmes (1999) as intrapersonal intelligence. According to him, it includes the thoughts and feelings of an individual. The more one can bring into his own consciousness, the better he can see his inner world to the outer world of experience. It helps an individual understand his desires and goals and emotional nature. He describes a person with a well-developed intrapersonal competence as one who is aware of his range of emotions; finds approaches and outlets to express his feelings and thoughts; develops an accurate model of self; is motivated to identify and pursue goals; establishes and lives by an ethical value system; works independently; is curious about the big questions in life; meanings, roles, and purposes; manages ongoing learning and personal growth; attempts to seek out and understand inner experience; gains insights into the complexities for self and human conditions; strives for self actualities; and empowers others. 4. Controlling establishing performance
Transcribed Image Text:The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Competencies of Principals (Cristobal, 2003) On management roles. A manager of an organization plays various roles that need specific skills and competencies in order for him or her to be effective. According to George (1994), a manager needs the following competencies to be termed as a "total quality manager": 1. Courage. A courageous manager stands up in unpopular ideas, does not avoid confrontations, and gives feedback to subordinates and superiors; his confidence is his own capability; 2. Dependability. A dependable leader follows through, upholds commitments, meets deadlines, takes and accepts responsibilities for actions, admits mistakes to superiors, works effectively with little or no supervision from supervisors, and keeps supervisors informed of his/her progress; 3. Flexibility, Functions effectively in a changing environment, provides stability, remains objective when confronted with many responsibilities at once, and handles several problems simultaneously; 4. Integrity. Adheres to a code of ethics and moral values, behaves in a manner that is inconsistent with organizational climate and professional responsibility, does not abuse management privileges, gains trust and respect, and serves as a model to his or her peers; 5. Judgment. Carries logical and intellectual assessment to reach sound evidence of alternative actions, bases decisions on logical and factual information, and considers the welfare of other people in his or her judgment; and 6. Respect for others. Honors rather than belittles the opinions or works of others and demonstrates a belief on each individual's value regardless of their status in the organization. On management practices. There are five behavioral management practices in order to become effective managers according to Posner (1987). These are as follows: 1. They challenge the process. They are willing to take the status quo. They make mistakes to push innovations. 2. They inspire a shared vision. They have a dream and purpose, a goal, or agenda. They live their lives backwards by studying a practice in their work. They are interested to share passionately that vision and make it happen. 3. They enable others to act. They focus on "we" to build coalition and encourage collaboration. They build teams and empower others. 4. They model the organization. They are clear about their beliefs and act consistently within their beliefs. They show others their values by behaving as they expect others to act. 5. They encourage the heart. They celebrate and offer dramatic encouragement and rewards. They show their members they can win and that winning is exciting. Allen (in De Guiana, 1998) presents only four major functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. He reduced the five functions to four by incorporating Payol's "coordinating" with "organizing"; by changing "commanding" to the less autocratic "leading"; and retaining to planning and controlling. He broke down all four functions into nineteen specific activities: 1. Planning - forecasting, establishing objectives, programming, scheduling, budgeting, formulating policies, and establishing procedures 2. Organizing - developing organization structure, delegating, and establishing relationship 3. Leading-decision-making, communicating, motivating, selecting people, and developing standards, performance measuring, evaluating, and correcting. The school managers are endowed not only with a higher degree of responsibility, but also of discretionary powers. Thus, this responsibility and authority include coordinating all resources of their work group to achieve set goals. They have to organize direct, motivate, communicate, control, evaluate, and develop people in his work group. Leveriza (1995) regards the managers as supervisors or overseers. This is because they deal not only with people but also with objectives. In actual practice, the supervisor is more than a manager or an overseer of people. He is the organization's man responsible for the conduct of others in the achievement of various organizational tasks: the maintenance of quality standard, the protection and care of materials, and the services to be rendered under his control. Likewise, Bittle (1991) looks at the school manager's responsibilities in five directions, enabling them to fill effectively the following five different roles: leaders and trainers of their employees; implementers of ideas; co-workers with other supervisors; subordinates to their own supervisors; and mediators of empioyees' needs. Cieariy, these roies indicate that a manager is noi oniy responsibie for the deveiopment of his people, but also for the maintenance of things, materials, and equipment within the organization. On intrapersonal competency. It is the ability to relate effectively with subordinates, colleagues, superiors, and representatives of other organizations. In the US, an ASCR sponsored research project yielded 12 dimensions of outstanding supervisors, gleaned from the literature of the past 15 years and verified by experts. These are community staff development, instructional program, planning and change, motivating and organizing. observation and conferencing, curriculum, problem-solving and decision-making, service to teachers, personal development, community relation, and research and program evaluation. Telephone surveys were made to confirm further the importance of the 12 dimensions. There was a strong belief in the importance of human relation and that a key to a supervisor's effectiveness is the "love and like of people." A supervisor should be willing to give other people credit for success and should be more of a "cheerleader than a "scorekeeper." Supervisors, according to Pajak (1990), are a very person-oriented activity. They require knowledge and skill but the human element is paramount. As asserted by one of the respondents in his study, "You always have to remember that people are important." Intrapersonal competency is termed by Holmes (1999) as intrapersonal intelligence. According to him, it includes the thoughts and feelings of an individual. The more one can bring into his own consciousness, the better he can see his inner world to the outer world of experience. It helps an individual understand his desires and goals and emotional nature. He describes a person with a well-developed intrapersonal competence as one who is aware of his range of emotions; finds approaches and outlets to express his feelings and thoughts; develops an accurate model of self; is motivated to identify and pursue goals; establishes and lives by an ethical value system; works independently; is curious about the big questions in life; meanings, roles, and purposes; manages ongoing learning and personal growth; attempts to seek out and understand inner experience; gains insights into the complexities for self and human conditions; strives for self actualities; and empowers others. 4. Controlling establishing performance
Dr. Howard Gardner (1992), in his theory of eight multiple intelligences, defines intrapersonal competence as referring to having an understanding of oneself and of knowing who he is. what he can do. what he wants. how to act on things. which to avoid. and which things he can have. He seeks to know what he cannot do and tends to know where to go if he needs help. The individual loves to control his own feelings and moods, pursue personal interest and set his individual agenda, learn organization by observing and listening, and use meta- cognitive skills. Another scholar, Chase (2000), termed intrapersonal competency as personal mastery. According to him, personal mastery takes many different forms depending on the person's background and life experiences. The focus may be on overcoming one's limitations such as procrastination or a particular learning disability. Others may struggle with addiction or dependency. Stress may also fall under personal mastery, as does the actual day-to-day implementation of that idealistic time management program you would like to adopt. An often overlooked dimension of personal mastery is the development of an ethical stance on all aspects of the organizational life. To be an effective agent of change, this intrapersonal competence is necessary. According to Whittaker (2000), those involved in works as agent of change need to appreciate that the personal lives of individuals are characterized by a struggle to secure and find fulfillment. The ways that an individual behaves in an organization and reacts to the change in expectations may be determined similarly with the developed struggle, as described by Erickson with regard to the particular details of the organizational issues at stake. A curiosity about human behavior and sensitivity for the psychological struggle of human beings are important parts of being an effective manager and leader. Many educators and scholars used personality in lieu of intrapersonal competence. According to Appodaca (1997), to better understand how to work effectively with people, it is necessary for a manager to first understand himself. Studying and understanding one's own desires and mental make-up can accomplish this. This is better known as looking at one's personality. Personality is the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a person as shown in his manner of walking, talking, dressing, attitude, interests, and ways of reaching out to other people. It refers to all the factors within the person that influence his character, behavior, thinking, and feelings (Santos, 1997). Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment. It is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others (Robbins, 1996). It is also a secondary description of psychology, which is concerned, with the distinctive pattern of thoughts, behaviors, and experiences, which characterize the individual's unified adjustment to his or her life situation (Allyn, 1999). Personality needs personal skills and abilities in order to be effective according to Boak (1998). Personal skills and abilities include the three areas of managing self. These are self-awareness; the practical understanding of one's self and one's own innate reactions and preferences; personal effectiveness, the number of key skills and competencies that can be used to help people achieve their goals; and self-development to help people leam to cope with changing circumstances and demands in their skills. and competencies. Self-awareness, as mentioned by Boak, is synonymous to intrapersonal competencies. It has five useful mental models. These are assertive behavior, foundations of assertiveness, life position, drivers, and personality. Personality, as one of the factors, is given importance in this study. As defined by Boak, these are more or less stable internal factors that make one person's behavior consistent from one time to another and different from the behaviors that other people would manifest in comparable situations. Personality plays an important role in an individual's personal, educational, vocational adjustment, and success. The probability of success in these three areas is determined to a large extent by personality factors. There have been studies of failure and maladjustments in these areas which are usually attributed to the lack of necessary personality traits. Employers of big firms resort to personality testing to meet and get an objective, unbiased, and accurate assessment of their prospective employees' personalities. An individual's written account of his past behaviors, feelings, and wishes can also be a good source of information about his personality, since the kind and quality of behavior directly affect work output or performance. Plunket (1990) mentioned that aptitude areas of a person's personality may or may not be developed. They are related to different competencies because they are the areas in which competencies are developed. A person with an aptitude for determining special relationships has the potential to become effective managers. Moreover, Santos (1997) continued that knowing one's personality is so important that through understanding of it and the personalities of others, it will spell the difference between success and failure in dealing with others. An understanding of one's own personality and of others can make the difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory adjustment. One of the most widely used personality framework is called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Test. It is essentially a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in a particular situation. On the basis of the answers of individuals in the test, they are classified as extroverted or introverted (E or !), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and perceiving or judging (P or J). There is also the five-factor model of personality dimensions (Robbins, 1996). These are as follows: 1. Extroversion and introversion - This dimension captures one comfort level with relationships. Extroverts tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend much of their time maintaining and enjoying a large number of relationships. Introverts tend to be reserved and have fewer relationships and they are more comfortable being solitary than most people. 2. Agreeableness - This dimension refers to an individual's propensity to differ with one another. Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value having their say or their way. They are cooperative and trusting with others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than on needs of others. 3. Conscientiousness - This dimension refers to the number of goals on which a person focuses on. A highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals in a purposeful way. A highly persistent person tends to be more easily distracted, pursues many goals, and is more hedonistic. 4. Emotional stability - This dimension taps a person ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm, enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, depressed, and insecure. 5. Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses one's range of interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovations. They tend to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intelligent. Those at the other end of the openness category appear more conventional and find comfort in the familiar. The terms used by Ormrod (1995), which are related to intrapersonal competence, are self concept and self-esteem. Self-concept, according to him, is the belief in one's self, character, strengths, and weaknesses. Self-esteem is the extent to which your believe yourself to be capable and worthy Individual. Individuals who have positive self-concept and high self-esteem are more likely to succeed academically, socially, and athletically. There are also factors to negative and positive self-concept. These are behavior and performance; behavior of other individuals; and expectations that others hold for performance. She also gave reasons why self concept is resistant to change: 1. People usually behave in ways consistent with what they believe about themselves, so their behaviors are likely to produce reactions on others that confirm their self-concept. 2. People tend to seek out information that confirms what they already believe about themselves. Individuals with positive self-concept are more likely to seek positive feedback whereas those with negative self-concept may actually look for information about their weakness and limitations. 3. People often put themselves in situations where they believe they would not succeed, thereby eliminating any possibility of discovering that they can succeed.
Transcribed Image Text:Dr. Howard Gardner (1992), in his theory of eight multiple intelligences, defines intrapersonal competence as referring to having an understanding of oneself and of knowing who he is. what he can do. what he wants. how to act on things. which to avoid. and which things he can have. He seeks to know what he cannot do and tends to know where to go if he needs help. The individual loves to control his own feelings and moods, pursue personal interest and set his individual agenda, learn organization by observing and listening, and use meta- cognitive skills. Another scholar, Chase (2000), termed intrapersonal competency as personal mastery. According to him, personal mastery takes many different forms depending on the person's background and life experiences. The focus may be on overcoming one's limitations such as procrastination or a particular learning disability. Others may struggle with addiction or dependency. Stress may also fall under personal mastery, as does the actual day-to-day implementation of that idealistic time management program you would like to adopt. An often overlooked dimension of personal mastery is the development of an ethical stance on all aspects of the organizational life. To be an effective agent of change, this intrapersonal competence is necessary. According to Whittaker (2000), those involved in works as agent of change need to appreciate that the personal lives of individuals are characterized by a struggle to secure and find fulfillment. The ways that an individual behaves in an organization and reacts to the change in expectations may be determined similarly with the developed struggle, as described by Erickson with regard to the particular details of the organizational issues at stake. A curiosity about human behavior and sensitivity for the psychological struggle of human beings are important parts of being an effective manager and leader. Many educators and scholars used personality in lieu of intrapersonal competence. According to Appodaca (1997), to better understand how to work effectively with people, it is necessary for a manager to first understand himself. Studying and understanding one's own desires and mental make-up can accomplish this. This is better known as looking at one's personality. Personality is the sum total of the qualities and characteristics of a person as shown in his manner of walking, talking, dressing, attitude, interests, and ways of reaching out to other people. It refers to all the factors within the person that influence his character, behavior, thinking, and feelings (Santos, 1997). Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment. It is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others (Robbins, 1996). It is also a secondary description of psychology, which is concerned, with the distinctive pattern of thoughts, behaviors, and experiences, which characterize the individual's unified adjustment to his or her life situation (Allyn, 1999). Personality needs personal skills and abilities in order to be effective according to Boak (1998). Personal skills and abilities include the three areas of managing self. These are self-awareness; the practical understanding of one's self and one's own innate reactions and preferences; personal effectiveness, the number of key skills and competencies that can be used to help people achieve their goals; and self-development to help people leam to cope with changing circumstances and demands in their skills. and competencies. Self-awareness, as mentioned by Boak, is synonymous to intrapersonal competencies. It has five useful mental models. These are assertive behavior, foundations of assertiveness, life position, drivers, and personality. Personality, as one of the factors, is given importance in this study. As defined by Boak, these are more or less stable internal factors that make one person's behavior consistent from one time to another and different from the behaviors that other people would manifest in comparable situations. Personality plays an important role in an individual's personal, educational, vocational adjustment, and success. The probability of success in these three areas is determined to a large extent by personality factors. There have been studies of failure and maladjustments in these areas which are usually attributed to the lack of necessary personality traits. Employers of big firms resort to personality testing to meet and get an objective, unbiased, and accurate assessment of their prospective employees' personalities. An individual's written account of his past behaviors, feelings, and wishes can also be a good source of information about his personality, since the kind and quality of behavior directly affect work output or performance. Plunket (1990) mentioned that aptitude areas of a person's personality may or may not be developed. They are related to different competencies because they are the areas in which competencies are developed. A person with an aptitude for determining special relationships has the potential to become effective managers. Moreover, Santos (1997) continued that knowing one's personality is so important that through understanding of it and the personalities of others, it will spell the difference between success and failure in dealing with others. An understanding of one's own personality and of others can make the difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory adjustment. One of the most widely used personality framework is called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Test. It is essentially a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in a particular situation. On the basis of the answers of individuals in the test, they are classified as extroverted or introverted (E or !), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and perceiving or judging (P or J). There is also the five-factor model of personality dimensions (Robbins, 1996). These are as follows: 1. Extroversion and introversion - This dimension captures one comfort level with relationships. Extroverts tend to be friendly and outgoing and spend much of their time maintaining and enjoying a large number of relationships. Introverts tend to be reserved and have fewer relationships and they are more comfortable being solitary than most people. 2. Agreeableness - This dimension refers to an individual's propensity to differ with one another. Highly agreeable people value harmony more than they value having their say or their way. They are cooperative and trusting with others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than on needs of others. 3. Conscientiousness - This dimension refers to the number of goals on which a person focuses on. A highly conscientious person pursues fewer goals in a purposeful way. A highly persistent person tends to be more easily distracted, pursues many goals, and is more hedonistic. 4. Emotional stability - This dimension taps a person ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm, enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, depressed, and insecure. 5. Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses one's range of interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovations. They tend to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intelligent. Those at the other end of the openness category appear more conventional and find comfort in the familiar. The terms used by Ormrod (1995), which are related to intrapersonal competence, are self concept and self-esteem. Self-concept, according to him, is the belief in one's self, character, strengths, and weaknesses. Self-esteem is the extent to which your believe yourself to be capable and worthy Individual. Individuals who have positive self-concept and high self-esteem are more likely to succeed academically, socially, and athletically. There are also factors to negative and positive self-concept. These are behavior and performance; behavior of other individuals; and expectations that others hold for performance. She also gave reasons why self concept is resistant to change: 1. People usually behave in ways consistent with what they believe about themselves, so their behaviors are likely to produce reactions on others that confirm their self-concept. 2. People tend to seek out information that confirms what they already believe about themselves. Individuals with positive self-concept are more likely to seek positive feedback whereas those with negative self-concept may actually look for information about their weakness and limitations. 3. People often put themselves in situations where they believe they would not succeed, thereby eliminating any possibility of discovering that they can succeed.
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