15. Cancer comprises many diseases with a common cause: uncontrolled cell growth. Cancer is a complex response to a host of environmental mutagens as well as the accumulation of random mutations. Since the "war on cancer" began in 1971, the death rate due to cancer has changed very little despite the discovery of several tumor-suppressor genes, including p53. Part A. Briefly describe the multiple functions of p53, including the role of p53 in apoptosis. Part B: Mutational signatures of p53 are shown in this image (G.P. Pfeifer et al., Nature, 21(48), 2002) for the three types of cancer with the highest death rates in the United States: lung (~225,000 deaths in 2016), breast (246,000), and colorectal (381,000). These data can be obtained by sequencing the gene that encodes p53. Approximately 85 percent of lung cancers occur in smokers. Based on these data, calculate how many deaths due to lung cancer among nonsmokers were reported in 2016. How much does smoking increase the likelihood of death due to lung cancer? Mutational Signatures of p53 for Three Types of Cancer Nonsmoker's lungs 11% 12% 47% 29% Smoker's lungs 11% 4% 10% 4% 54% 12% 6% 9% 10% 5% 30% Breast and colorectal cancer 12% 13% 4% 3% 11% G:CTAG:CAT G:CC:G ATCG ATG:CATTA Deletion/insertion Part C: As shown under each graph in this image, particular transversions (replacement of a pyrimidine by a purine of vice versa) or transitions (replacement of a purine or pyrimidine by the alternative purine or pyrimidine) are features of specific mutational signatures. Based on these data, identify the transversion or transition that seems to be induced by cigarette smoke.

After entering adulthood, bones become completely fixed and unchangeable? A. True B. False

The head is either superior to or inferior to the neck?

What were the skeletal features on this individual that the scientists used to estimate her age?   A. Arthritis on the spine   B. Lipping of the vertebrae   C. The pubic symphysis   D. Only A and B