11) Consider each of the following scenarios and state whether the variable in question is aconfounder, or whether more information is needed to assess confounding. Choose from Yes / No / orNeed more information, and provide a very brief explanation for your selectiona) In a cohort study of liver cancer among males, incidence rates of liver cancer among men withunhealthy alcohol use are compared to incidence rates of liver cancer among non-drinkers. Isgender a confounder in this study?b) A case-control study of the risk of beer consumption and oral cancer among men (overall OR =2.8). In this study, cigarette smoking is associated with beer consumption and is a risk factor fororal cancer among both beer drinkers (OR=3.6) and nondrinkers (OR=3.7). Is cigarette smoking aconfounder in this study?c) In a study of the risk of pulmonary hypertension among women who take diet drugs to lose weight,the crude relative risk of pulmonary hypertension comparing diet drug users to non-users is 17.0and the age adjusted relative risk is 5.0. Is age a confounder in this study?d) In a cohort study examining the association between physical activity and cardiovascular diseaserisk, the investigators stratified the population by hormone replacement therapy use. Among usersof hormone replacement therapy, participants who were physically active had a relative risk of0.63, compared to participants where physically inactive. Among subjects who did not usehormone replacement therapy, participants who were physically active had a relative risk of 0.61,compared to participants where physically inactive. Is hormone replacement therapy a confounderin this study?e) In a retrospective cohort study of U.S. Army veterans, investigators examined the associationbetween exposure to active combat and risk of suicide, with the hypothesis that combat-involvedservicemembers may be more likely to experience PTSD, which leads to greater risk of suicide.The unadjusted relative risk of suicide associated with active combat was 5.1. After adjusting forPTSD, the RR for this association was 1.0. Was PTSD a confounder in this study?

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