Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)
Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)
5th Edition
ISBN: 9780134477961
Author: Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White
Publisher: PEARSON
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Question
Read the research article added here, read-only study 1, and answer the question: 1. Looking at the relationship between fertility status, target sexual orientation, and sexual orientation perception accuracy, what type of study is it (correlational, quasi-experimental, experimental)? Group of answer choices A. Correlational B. Experimental C. Quasi-experimental and experimental D. Quasi-experimental
882 behavior than men are (e.g., Hall & Andrzejewski, 2008), and extraverts are often better judges of other peoples' traits than are introverts (Lieberman & Rosenthal, 2001). In the domain of deception detection, people are slightly but significantly more accurate than chance in judgments of deception from nonverbal cues (Bond & DePaulo, 2006), but there is consid- erable interindividual variation in this ability (Bond & DePaulo, 2008). One biological factor known to exert an influence on per- ceptions of other people is variation in women's fertility cycles. Women have been found to categorize male faces faster than female faces at periods of high fertility (around ovulation) compared with periods of nonfertility (Johnston, Arden, Macrae, & Grace, 2003; Macrae, Alnwick, Milne, & Schloerscheidt, 2002). Similarly, women nearer ovulation rated masculinized faces (Penton-Voak et al., 1999) and mas- culine body gaits (Provost, Troje, & Quinsey, 2008) as more attractive. These effects did not apply to men, women using systemic contraceptive medication, and pregnant women (Johnston et al., 2003). Moreover, lesbian women actually showed opposite effects: They categorized female faces faster than male faces during high fertility (Brinsmead-Stockham, Johnston, Miles, & Macrae, 2008). Attention to sexually rele- vant targets thus varies depending on women's fertility status, and women's fertility can have multiple effects on social per- ception (Jones et al., 2008). It seems reasonable, then, that women's accuracy in judg- ing male sexual orientation might also depend on fertility cycles and sexual relevance. We therefore tested heterosexual women's accuracy in judging sexual orientation across the fer- tility cycle; our hypothesis was that accuracy for male faces would be greater nearer to peak ovulation (Study 1) but that ovulation would not affect the categorization of sexually irrel- evant women's faces (Study 2). Finally, we examined whether increasing women's sexual interest through cognitive priming might increase their accuracy in judging sexual orientation, just as natural variations in sexual interest are brought on by the fertility cycle (Study 3). Study I Although it is fairly well established that fertility influences women's attention to sexually relevant cues, it is not known whether this increased attention might also benefit the accu- racy of person judgments. In Study 1, we therefore asked het- erosexual women to judge sexual orientation from men's faces, and we related the women's accuracy to their fertility status. Method Participants. Forty heterosexual undergraduate women responded to an advertisement requesting female under- graduates not using systemic contraceptive medication to par- ticipate in a psychology study in exchange for monetary Rule et al. compensation. Respondents verified that they were not using any contraceptive medications at the time of scheduling and at the end of their respective experimental sessions. One participant reported irregular cycles and was excluded from analysis. Stimuli. Photos of faces of self-identified gay men (n = 40) and straight men (n = 40) were taken from a stimulus set vali- dated in earlier studies (Rule et al., 2007; Rule, Ambady, Adams, & Macrae, 2008). The photos were gray-scale images standardized for size, and none of the targets had adornments (e.g., jewelry, facial hair). Moreover, the gay and straight men did not differ in emotional expression or attractiveness (see Rule et al., 2008, for details). Procedure. Participants were instructed that they would view men's faces on a computer screen and would be asked to indi- cate each man's probable sexual orientation as gay or straight by pressing a key. Participants were encouraged to use their intuition in making judgments and not to think about any one face too much. Afterward, the women volunteered their own sexual orientations and reported the duration of time since last menses and the typical length of their fertility cycle. These data were used to estimate each woman's point in her cycle using a backward-counting method implemented in previous research (e.g., Brinsmead-Stockham et al., 2008). Results Accuracy and response bias were calculated using signal detection theory (e.g., Sporer, 2001). Accuracy was signifi- cantly greater than chance guessing (.50; see Table 1) and, more important, varied according to fertility status. Peak ovu- lation was estimated as 14 days prior to next expected menses. For women who were postpeak, the distance in time from peak ovulation was calculated by dividing the number of days post- peak by 14, and for women who were prepeak, the number of days prepeak was divided by the difference between peak ovu- lation and reported cycle length (cycle length: M = 30 days, SD = 4 days). This yielded positive proportions for postpeak women and negative proportions for prepeak women, with peak ovulation centered at 0. These proportions showed a significant curvilinear rela- tionship, such that the nearer women were to peak ovulation, the more accurate they were in judging men's sexual orienta- tions, F(2, 36)=4.71, p= .02, R² = .21 (Fig. 1). Response bias showed a tendency for women to perceive men as straight rather than gay, but it was unrelated to the women's fertility and thus showed neither linear nor curvilinear trends, Fs < 1.86, ps> .17. Although our previous work found no differences in attrac- tiveness between the gay and straight men in this stimulus set (Rule et al., 2008), perceptions of attractiveness are known to be related to women's fertility. We therefore asked 24 separate participants to judge the attractiveness of the faces along a Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Michael Slepian on July 20, 2011
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Transcribed Image Text:882 behavior than men are (e.g., Hall & Andrzejewski, 2008), and extraverts are often better judges of other peoples' traits than are introverts (Lieberman & Rosenthal, 2001). In the domain of deception detection, people are slightly but significantly more accurate than chance in judgments of deception from nonverbal cues (Bond & DePaulo, 2006), but there is consid- erable interindividual variation in this ability (Bond & DePaulo, 2008). One biological factor known to exert an influence on per- ceptions of other people is variation in women's fertility cycles. Women have been found to categorize male faces faster than female faces at periods of high fertility (around ovulation) compared with periods of nonfertility (Johnston, Arden, Macrae, & Grace, 2003; Macrae, Alnwick, Milne, & Schloerscheidt, 2002). Similarly, women nearer ovulation rated masculinized faces (Penton-Voak et al., 1999) and mas- culine body gaits (Provost, Troje, & Quinsey, 2008) as more attractive. These effects did not apply to men, women using systemic contraceptive medication, and pregnant women (Johnston et al., 2003). Moreover, lesbian women actually showed opposite effects: They categorized female faces faster than male faces during high fertility (Brinsmead-Stockham, Johnston, Miles, & Macrae, 2008). Attention to sexually rele- vant targets thus varies depending on women's fertility status, and women's fertility can have multiple effects on social per- ception (Jones et al., 2008). It seems reasonable, then, that women's accuracy in judg- ing male sexual orientation might also depend on fertility cycles and sexual relevance. We therefore tested heterosexual women's accuracy in judging sexual orientation across the fer- tility cycle; our hypothesis was that accuracy for male faces would be greater nearer to peak ovulation (Study 1) but that ovulation would not affect the categorization of sexually irrel- evant women's faces (Study 2). Finally, we examined whether increasing women's sexual interest through cognitive priming might increase their accuracy in judging sexual orientation, just as natural variations in sexual interest are brought on by the fertility cycle (Study 3). Study I Although it is fairly well established that fertility influences women's attention to sexually relevant cues, it is not known whether this increased attention might also benefit the accu- racy of person judgments. In Study 1, we therefore asked het- erosexual women to judge sexual orientation from men's faces, and we related the women's accuracy to their fertility status. Method Participants. Forty heterosexual undergraduate women responded to an advertisement requesting female under- graduates not using systemic contraceptive medication to par- ticipate in a psychology study in exchange for monetary Rule et al. compensation. Respondents verified that they were not using any contraceptive medications at the time of scheduling and at the end of their respective experimental sessions. One participant reported irregular cycles and was excluded from analysis. Stimuli. Photos of faces of self-identified gay men (n = 40) and straight men (n = 40) were taken from a stimulus set vali- dated in earlier studies (Rule et al., 2007; Rule, Ambady, Adams, & Macrae, 2008). The photos were gray-scale images standardized for size, and none of the targets had adornments (e.g., jewelry, facial hair). Moreover, the gay and straight men did not differ in emotional expression or attractiveness (see Rule et al., 2008, for details). Procedure. Participants were instructed that they would view men's faces on a computer screen and would be asked to indi- cate each man's probable sexual orientation as gay or straight by pressing a key. Participants were encouraged to use their intuition in making judgments and not to think about any one face too much. Afterward, the women volunteered their own sexual orientations and reported the duration of time since last menses and the typical length of their fertility cycle. These data were used to estimate each woman's point in her cycle using a backward-counting method implemented in previous research (e.g., Brinsmead-Stockham et al., 2008). Results Accuracy and response bias were calculated using signal detection theory (e.g., Sporer, 2001). Accuracy was signifi- cantly greater than chance guessing (.50; see Table 1) and, more important, varied according to fertility status. Peak ovu- lation was estimated as 14 days prior to next expected menses. For women who were postpeak, the distance in time from peak ovulation was calculated by dividing the number of days post- peak by 14, and for women who were prepeak, the number of days prepeak was divided by the difference between peak ovu- lation and reported cycle length (cycle length: M = 30 days, SD = 4 days). This yielded positive proportions for postpeak women and negative proportions for prepeak women, with peak ovulation centered at 0. These proportions showed a significant curvilinear rela- tionship, such that the nearer women were to peak ovulation, the more accurate they were in judging men's sexual orienta- tions, F(2, 36)=4.71, p= .02, R² = .21 (Fig. 1). Response bias showed a tendency for women to perceive men as straight rather than gay, but it was unrelated to the women's fertility and thus showed neither linear nor curvilinear trends, Fs < 1.86, ps> .17. Although our previous work found no differences in attrac- tiveness between the gay and straight men in this stimulus set (Rule et al., 2008), perceptions of attractiveness are known to be related to women's fertility. We therefore asked 24 separate participants to judge the attractiveness of the faces along a Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Michael Slepian on July 20, 2011
Female Fertility and Judgments of Sexual Orientation Accuracy (A') .90 .80 .70 .60 .50 .40- Table 1. Accuracy (A) and Response Bias (B') in Judging Sexual Orientation in Studies I Through 3 .30 -1.00 Study and condition Study I Study 2 Study 3a Control Mating prime Study 3b Control Mating prime *p<.001. M .61 .61 .60 .66 .64 .63 7-point scale. The judges showed consensus in their assess- ments (Cronbach's a = .85), and the judgments were therefore averaged across raters for each target. The mean attractiveness ratings were then correlated with the dichotomous ratings of the targets as gay and straight from the main study, and these sensitivity correlations were converted using Fisher's r-to-Z transformation to produce an estimate of the relationship between each participant's categorization and the attractive- ness of the faces. The relationship between attractiveness and the categorizations of the faces was not significant (a = .05), as the 95% confidence interval (CI) surrounding the mean Fisher Z-transformed correlation contained 0, 95% CI= [-0.03, 0.07]. A' SD .12 .06 .08 .12 .06 .07 t t(38) = 5.52* t(33) = 10.39* t(18)= 4.93* t(20) = 6.13* 1.00 t(20) = 10.88* t(20) = 7.64* -.50 .00 .50 Time From Estimated Ovulation Fig. 1. Results from Study I: women's accuracy (A) in categorizing men's sexual orientations as a function of distance in time from estimated ovulation. The graph presents individual data points and a trend line showing the quadratic fit. Effect size (r) .67 .88 .74 .81 .89 .81 M .08 .14 .04 .10 Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Michael Slepian on July 20, 2011 B' SD .15 .13 .09 .20 .22 .19 .20 .17 883 Discussion Women's accuracy in judging men's sexual orientations from their faces was greater the nearer the women were to peak ovu- lation. Targets' sexual orientation may therefore be more salient or legible for perceivers when it is more relevant. In previous work, we found that gay men were more accurate judges of male sexual orientation than were straight men (Rule et al., 2007). This could be because gay men are more familiar or experienced with distinguishing sexual orientation, or because information about male sexual orientation is more rel- evant for gay men than for straight men. The present data pro- vide some support for this relevance hypothesis. Specifically, women's success in conceiving is greater nearer to peak ovula- tion. One factor assisting their reproductive success is the abil- ity to identify a suitable mate. Thus, women may be more attentive to sexual orientation nearer to ovulation because tar- gets' candidacy as mates would be more relevant. Yet it is also possible that women may be more attentive overall to nonver- bal appearance cues nearer ovulation. To investigate this pos- sibility, Study 2 measured heterosexual women's ability to judge other women's sexual orientation from their faces. Study 2 Thirty-four heterosexual women not using systemic contracep- tion (cycle length: M= 30 days, SD = 4.6 days) were recruited as in Study 1. Procedures were identical to Study 1, with the exception that participants viewed the faces of 100 lesbian and 100 straight women. Photos were validated in earlier work (Rule et al., 2009). The photos were gray-scale images stan- dardized for size, and none of the targets had adornments. Moreover, the lesbian and straight women did not differ in emo- tional expression, attractiveness, or the use of makeup. Data were again analyzed using signal detection theory. Accuracy was significantly greater than chance guessing (Table 1) but was unrelated to participants' fertility; accuracy
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Transcribed Image Text:Female Fertility and Judgments of Sexual Orientation Accuracy (A') .90 .80 .70 .60 .50 .40- Table 1. Accuracy (A) and Response Bias (B') in Judging Sexual Orientation in Studies I Through 3 .30 -1.00 Study and condition Study I Study 2 Study 3a Control Mating prime Study 3b Control Mating prime *p<.001. M .61 .61 .60 .66 .64 .63 7-point scale. The judges showed consensus in their assess- ments (Cronbach's a = .85), and the judgments were therefore averaged across raters for each target. The mean attractiveness ratings were then correlated with the dichotomous ratings of the targets as gay and straight from the main study, and these sensitivity correlations were converted using Fisher's r-to-Z transformation to produce an estimate of the relationship between each participant's categorization and the attractive- ness of the faces. The relationship between attractiveness and the categorizations of the faces was not significant (a = .05), as the 95% confidence interval (CI) surrounding the mean Fisher Z-transformed correlation contained 0, 95% CI= [-0.03, 0.07]. A' SD .12 .06 .08 .12 .06 .07 t t(38) = 5.52* t(33) = 10.39* t(18)= 4.93* t(20) = 6.13* 1.00 t(20) = 10.88* t(20) = 7.64* -.50 .00 .50 Time From Estimated Ovulation Fig. 1. Results from Study I: women's accuracy (A) in categorizing men's sexual orientations as a function of distance in time from estimated ovulation. The graph presents individual data points and a trend line showing the quadratic fit. Effect size (r) .67 .88 .74 .81 .89 .81 M .08 .14 .04 .10 Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Michael Slepian on July 20, 2011 B' SD .15 .13 .09 .20 .22 .19 .20 .17 883 Discussion Women's accuracy in judging men's sexual orientations from their faces was greater the nearer the women were to peak ovu- lation. Targets' sexual orientation may therefore be more salient or legible for perceivers when it is more relevant. In previous work, we found that gay men were more accurate judges of male sexual orientation than were straight men (Rule et al., 2007). This could be because gay men are more familiar or experienced with distinguishing sexual orientation, or because information about male sexual orientation is more rel- evant for gay men than for straight men. The present data pro- vide some support for this relevance hypothesis. Specifically, women's success in conceiving is greater nearer to peak ovula- tion. One factor assisting their reproductive success is the abil- ity to identify a suitable mate. Thus, women may be more attentive to sexual orientation nearer to ovulation because tar- gets' candidacy as mates would be more relevant. Yet it is also possible that women may be more attentive overall to nonver- bal appearance cues nearer ovulation. To investigate this pos- sibility, Study 2 measured heterosexual women's ability to judge other women's sexual orientation from their faces. Study 2 Thirty-four heterosexual women not using systemic contracep- tion (cycle length: M= 30 days, SD = 4.6 days) were recruited as in Study 1. Procedures were identical to Study 1, with the exception that participants viewed the faces of 100 lesbian and 100 straight women. Photos were validated in earlier work (Rule et al., 2009). The photos were gray-scale images stan- dardized for size, and none of the targets had adornments. Moreover, the lesbian and straight women did not differ in emo- tional expression, attractiveness, or the use of makeup. Data were again analyzed using signal detection theory. Accuracy was significantly greater than chance guessing (Table 1) but was unrelated to participants' fertility; accuracy
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