Advanced Engineering Mathematics
Advanced Engineering Mathematics
10th Edition
ISBN: 9780470458365
Author: Erwin Kreyszig
Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated
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[Number Theory] How do you solve question 1? The second picture is for definitions. 

Additional information:

  • We say that a group G is abelian if its elements commute, that is, gh = hg for all g, h in  G
  • Un is an abelian group under multiplication mod (n)
Definition If Un is cyclic then any generator g for Un is called a primitive root mod (n). This means that g has order equal to the order (n) of Un, so that the powers of g yield all the elements of Un. For instance, 2 and 3 are primitive roots mod (5), but there are no primitive roots mod (8) since Us is not cyclic. Finding primitive roots in Un (if they exist) is a non-trivial problem, and there is no simple solution. One obvious but tedious method is to try each of the (n) units a E Un in turn, each time computing powers a' mod (n) to find the order of a in Un; if we find an element a of order (n) then we know that this must be a primitive root. The following result is a rather more efficient test for primitive roots: Lemma 6.4 An element a E Un is a primitive root if and only if a(n)/9 ‡ 1 in Un for each prime q dividing (n).
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Transcribed Image Text:Definition If Un is cyclic then any generator g for Un is called a primitive root mod (n). This means that g has order equal to the order (n) of Un, so that the powers of g yield all the elements of Un. For instance, 2 and 3 are primitive roots mod (5), but there are no primitive roots mod (8) since Us is not cyclic. Finding primitive roots in Un (if they exist) is a non-trivial problem, and there is no simple solution. One obvious but tedious method is to try each of the (n) units a E Un in turn, each time computing powers a' mod (n) to find the order of a in Un; if we find an element a of order (n) then we know that this must be a primitive root. The following result is a rather more efficient test for primitive roots: Lemma 6.4 An element a E Un is a primitive root if and only if a(n)/9 ‡ 1 in Un for each prime q dividing (n).
1. (i) Show by hand that 2 is a primitive root mod 19. (ii) Find² a complete set of primitive roots mod 19. 2. Suppose that a and b are primitive root modulo an odd prime p. Show that ab is not a primitive root mod p. 3. Suppose that p and q are odd primes. Show that pq is a pseudoprime base 2 if and only if ord, (2)| (q-1) and ord, (2)| (p-1). Here, if gcd(a, p) = 1, we use the notation ord, (a) for the order of the element [a], in the group Up. 4. (i) Show that 2 is a primitive root mod 11² = 121. Hint: Use the criterion given by Lemma 6.4 and a calculator. Conclude that 2 is a primitive root mod 11e for any e. (ii) How many elements of order 5 are there in the group U1331? Note that 1331 = 11³. (iii) Find all elements of order 5 in U1331. ¹1.e., do not use a calculator 2Here you may use a calculator to compute residues mod 19.
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Transcribed Image Text:1. (i) Show by hand that 2 is a primitive root mod 19. (ii) Find² a complete set of primitive roots mod 19. 2. Suppose that a and b are primitive root modulo an odd prime p. Show that ab is not a primitive root mod p. 3. Suppose that p and q are odd primes. Show that pq is a pseudoprime base 2 if and only if ord, (2)| (q-1) and ord, (2)| (p-1). Here, if gcd(a, p) = 1, we use the notation ord, (a) for the order of the element [a], in the group Up. 4. (i) Show that 2 is a primitive root mod 11² = 121. Hint: Use the criterion given by Lemma 6.4 and a calculator. Conclude that 2 is a primitive root mod 11e for any e. (ii) How many elements of order 5 are there in the group U1331? Note that 1331 = 11³. (iii) Find all elements of order 5 in U1331. ¹1.e., do not use a calculator 2Here you may use a calculator to compute residues mod 19.
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