Bacteriophages (phages) are viruses that infect and multiply only in bacterial cells. They are not capable of infecting eukaryotic cells (human, animal, fungus, plants and insects). Phages are the natural predators of bacteria. Like all viruses, phages hijack the energy and cellular machinery provided by a host cell to replicate and make viral copies since they do not have their own metabolism. Endolysin enzyme encoded in the bacteriophage genome lyse the peptidoglycan of the bacterial cell wall during the phage lytic cycle, releasing dozens or hundreds of new phages (7). The cycle continues until there are no bacteria left to attack. Since phages only attack specific types of bacteria, they are unlikely to harm any human cells. In addition,
The study is important to detect if there is a relationship between the amount of phages and the mucus layers in the body because this could help to fight infection from viruses. The information found from the study clearly displays the symbiotic relationship between the phage and the mucus layer of the metazoan host. However, the flow of the article is hard to follow and there are many different experiments briefly explained which could be expanded to help better connect all the experiments. Although the study shows that less bacteria adherence and more phage
The purpose of the following experiment was to isolate and analyze a novel phage from the environment [3]. Initially, the phage was extracted from the environment through an enrichment procedure [3]. The first enrichment was successful producing a two cloudy plaques which were theorized to be temperate phage. It was theorized to be a temperate phage due to the cloudy appearance of the phage plaque. The two streaking procedures that followed did not result in any visible phage. This could have been due to two possibilities, either a flawed lab technique or the phage that had originally been enriched had died off. In order to determine whether the phage had died an additional enrichment was conducted. The second enrichment resulted in no visible phage plaques.
Lab number 6 was a success. The Phages were isolated nicely. The only negative in the results was that they were not easily seen or transparent in the light. The plaques were isolated, large, and opaque. One plate had an isolated Phage with some small and white contaminates near the Phage. The second Agar plate did not have contaminates, but as stated before, the plaques weren’t transparent circles. The large plaques were faded.
Viruses are microscopic particles that invade and take over both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. They consist of two structures, which are the nucleic acid and capsid. The nucleic acid contains all genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA, and is enclosed in the capsid, which is the protein coating that helps the virus attach to and penetrate the host cell. In some cases, certain viruses have a membrane surrounding the capsid, called an envelope. This structure allows viruses to become more stealthy and protected. There are two cycles in which a virus can go into: lytic and lysogenic. The lytic cycle consists of the virus attaching to a cell, injecting its DNA, and creating more viruses, which proceed to destroy the host. On the other hand, the lysogenic cycle includes the virus attaching to the cell, injecting its DNA, which combines with the cell’s DNA in order for it to become provirus. Then, the provirus DNA may eventually switch to the lytic cycle and destroy the host.
T6SS is believed to resemble the tail of a bacteriophage. TssJ, TssL and TssM proteins combine to form a complex which anchors it to the cell membrane, stretching from outer to inner membrane. A baseplate, created by TssA, E, F, G and K resides within the inner membrane. VgrG resides within the baseplate and supports the tube of Hcp hexamers extending into the cytoplasm. TssB and TssC combine to form a sheath-like structure supporting the Hcp hexamer tube. Their interlacing construction provides strength to the barrel during contraction and effector release. At the tip PAAR and VgrG combine to create the “spike” at the end of the tube, which serves to puncture the membrane of the target cell, so that the effector proteins can be delivered. PAAR repeat containing proteins have been found to play an important role in the formation of the puncturing structure at the top of the tube, as their omission in certain bacteria result in loss of virulence. Once the effector proteins have been successfully delivered to the target cell, ClpV attaches to TssC to promote disassembly of the TssBC sheath. A specific defensive strategy, termed ‘Tit for tat’ has been described in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This is made possible by TPP (threonine phosphorylation pathway) accessory proteins during cell to cell connection. PpkA and PppA act upon Fha1. Accessory proteins TagQ, R, S and T lead to a change in conformation and a firing event. All accessory proteins are necessary for activation. This strategy is activated in response to aggression from another cell. Not all P. aeruginosa organisms contain the necessary components for this defense
Part 1: People have been aware of viruses for a long time, but many aspects of viruses still remain a mystery. Bacteriophages, also called phages, are everywhere and have significant impacts on the global ecosystem. These phages interact with other organisms on a genetic level with both helpful and harmful effects. Humans have recently begun to utilize the bacteria-killing capabilities of phages for beneficial purposes. When Felix d’Herelle discovered this potential, he started using phages to treat bacterial illnesses such as dysentery (Barr and Kirby 2013).
Phage therapy involves the use of bacteriophages to treat specific pathogenic bacteria. The bacteriophages infect or kill pathogenic bacteria upon encounter with them. In 1915, Frederick Twort discovered the viruses of bacteria (Abedon, 2011). The bacteriophage era began when Felix d'Hérelle published a seminal publication that demonstrated “un bactériophage obligatoire” (Abedon, 2011) Soon after, microbiologists began to include the phages idea into their ideas. Novel therapies are needed to kill pathogenic bacteria. Phage therapy offers an alternative to the antibiotic treatment of bacteria. Even though bacteria can gradually resist phage, the resistance will not be as pronounced as the resistance to bacteria. Phage therapy is specific
6. Humans should not be concerned about the bacteriophages infecting other cells because each bacteriophage is particular to a certain bacteria. If the bacterial cell exhibits traits that are desirable to the certain bacteriophage, then the phage will chose to bind and infect it, otherwise people have nothing to worry about.
My future career is becoming an Infectious Disease Specialist. This is a career in the medical field where a patient might have a disease that is contagious and their blood, urine etc. samples come to the specialists. The specialists see what kind of disease the patient has based off of this. They can determined if it can be treated and how to plan to contain the disease so no one else gets it. An example of using the Respiratory anatomy knowledge in my career field might be seen on the patient. A patient might have an infectious Respiratory disease that comes into the hospital. The nurses or regular onsite doctors might do a series of tests on the respiratory part of the body. A test might be a Pulmonary Function Test (PFT) which measures
There are several advantages to phage therapy with target specificity being one of the main ones. Most phages will only lyse bacteria of a particular species or a specific strain meaning that the human microbiota should not be affected. In contrast, antibiotics are less specific and so treatment usually disrupts this flora, allowing opportunistic bacteria to thrive. This specificity is also a limitation as the bacteria causing the infection needs to be determined otherwise the treatment is likely to be useless. Such problems can however be addressed with the use of phage combinations like ‘cocktails’ used in the above study.
I am applying to the Phage Genomics Research course as I believe it will be a unique experience that will give me the advantage of an early start on my university studies and career aims, as I am aspiring to work as a research scientist in the future. I am particularly interested in the genetics branch of biology, and within that is genomics, so I feel as if this course is perfect as it will allow me to work in the area I hope to continue in. I realize that a similar opportunity may not present itself for another year or two, so I am hoping to take hold of this offer while I can. The prospect of working hands-on in the field so early in my university career is definitely exciting, as well as the chance to contribute to potentially groundbreaking research, and so, I am eager to see where the investigation takes us.
The animals we look after in a veterinary practice are likely already ill and will have weakened
Cross infection - transmission of an infection from one person to another via contact with an infected individual or contaminated items.
World Health Organization revealed that approximately 800 healthcare providers have been infected by the Ebola virus after the outbreak of the epidemic, and more than 60 percent of the health workers, who have been infected, have lost their life (International Council of Nurses, 2015). Therefore, the International Council of Nurses (ICN) attempted to promote safe and protective working environments for healthcare providers and nurses on the frontlines of healthcare. The ICN’s Chief Executive Officer indicates that numerous nurses are in dangerous situation when taking care of people. Apparently, it is required to strengthen safety policies and establish the provision of adequate safety training (2015).
A virus is a biological agent that reproduces inside cells of a living host. These microscopic, nonliving particles can infect all types of organisms ranging from plants to animals and even bacteria. Viruses consist of nucleic acid, RNA or DNA, which is surrounded by a protein coat. A virus is not alive until it inhabits a cell. It can inhabit a cell through soil, water, and the air through our noses, mouths and even breaks in skin. Once it does this, it can begin to replicate and grow accordingly. Viruses use their capsids, the protein coats, to enclose the DNA and then use their tails to attach to the cell and begin to inject their own DNAs. The best-understood and most abundant virus is called a bacteriophage. A bacteriophage is a virus