Danger Signals

The innate and adaptive immune response start with exposure to an antigen in the epithelium of

Inside the girls head, few emotions wonder around. Most of them include the thoughts of “why am I here” and “I can't do anything”. The novel “Speak” by Laurie Halse Anderson is about a freshman in highschool named Melinda, she has not been able to speak up since the summer of 8th grade. The poem written by William Blake called “The Poison Tree” is about anger that can not be released by the speaker, this causes anger to grow and change his identity. Through the use of symbolism and trees, both “Speak” by Laurie Halse Anderson and William Blake the author of the poem “The Poison Tree”, reveal that speaking up helps define who you are, and keeping silent can block your true personality.

This is immunity in an organism that’s a result from the production of antibodies or lymphocytes after an antigen is identified in the body.

“The Perpetual Adolescent” is an observational piece by Joseph Epstein. He suggests that modern adult acts much more childish than the previous generations of middle aged people. A big part of acting like a younger person is dressing like a younger person. According to Epstein, the dressed down adult is the immature adult, which in turn leads to many adults trying to copy the modern and hip youth culture. This in turn created more relaxed environments across all career fields, leaving less “true” adults. He feels that American now want to stay young forever instead of maturing into the adults of their parent's generations. Epstein believes that this mentality is flawed, leaving the people in positions of power striving

Dendritic cells use chemokines to find their way to the lymph node. T-cells originate in the bone marrow from hemopoetic stem cells along with B-cells. When T-cells receive the notch signal, they migrate to the thymus where they mature. T-cells go through V(D)J recombination then preTCR go through VJ recombination. Eventually they make it to positive selection which selects for MHC restricted cells and then negative selection where self-reacting cells are eliminated. Net is when the T-cells either become helper cells or cytotoxic

When injury or infection occurs inflammation ensues. Inflammation is a defense response of the body that signals for the immune system to manage/fight off infection. White blood cells and macrophages are key components of this process. On a cellular level, immunity is created by exposure to foreign antigens. When the body encounters the foreign antigens it produces antibodies to destroy the antigens. B cells, a type of white blood cell, produce these antibodies. The antigen is then stored in the memory of the B cells so that when the same antigen is encountered in the future, our body can fight off the pathogen

Dendritic cells are known as the gatekeepers and are critical to an immune response. Dendritic cells can either have an immune response or induce tolerance because of the production of different mediators and surface molecules. Because dendritic cells can promote differentiation of CD4+ cells into other types of T-helper cells they can further shape the immune response. What type of response is dependant on the mediators produced and then further influenced by cytokines from the surrounding environment. T-helper cells activate inflammatory cells and form the allergic reactions that are crucial through cytokine production. The allergen specific B cells are engaged by the T-cell receptors on the Th2 cell surface leading to production of IL-4, IL-3 that allows switching in B cells and the synthesizing of IgE (Faoud 2011). The allergen specific B cells and Th2 cells become memory cells for future immune

T cells are part of the adaptive immunity that proliferate in the thymus, their protein antigen receptors provide pathogen specific recognition

The Gift of the Magi Argumentative Research Paper: Did Jim and Della perform an act of Selfless Love?

Human beings are born with immunity as well as they acquire it from the environment they grow in. Human innate immunity is assigned the task to hinder the harmful substances from entering the body. These immunity barriers develop a defense line. The innate immunity includes cough, tear enzymes, mucus, skin and the stomach acid. Hence, the role of innate immune system is to stop harmful materials from entering our body. In case the innate immunity is insufficient to fight, there is acquired immunity that fights harmful substances by getting exposed to various antigens. The acquired immunity is developed against specific antigen. Its role is to fight

The organs that make up the lymphatic and immune system are the tonsils, spleen, thymus gland, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels. White blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), plasma, and platelets (thrombocytes) make up the blood. Lymphocytes are leukocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight off diseases. Two types of lymphocytes are B cells and T cells. Lymphocytes recognize antigens, or foreign substances/matter, in the body. Lymphocytes are a classification of agranulocytes, or cells (-cytes) without (a-) granules (granul/o) in the cytoplasm. B cells are created from stem cells, which are located in the bone marrow. B cells respond to antigens by becoming plasma cells. These plasma cells then create antibodies. Memory B cells produce a stronger response with the next exposure to the antigen. B cells fight off infection and bacteria while T cells defend against viruses and cancer cells. A hormone created by the thymus gland called thymosin changes lymphocytes into T cells. The thymus gland is active when you are a child and slowly shrinks, as you get older. T cells bind to the antigens on the cells and directly attack them. T cells secrete lymphokines that increase T cell production and directly kill cells with antigens. There are three types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and memory T cells.

If a pathogen breaches barriers: innate immune response result into an immediate effect of non- specific response. All Innate immune systems derived from plants and animals, when a pathogen evades the innate response, a third layer of protection is possessed by vertebrates in which activation of adaptive immune system takes place. The immune system response adopts itself within an infection and pathogen recognition is improved. As a result of the improved response, its then retains itself when the pathogen is eliminated in form of an immunological memory and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger when pathogen is encountered each time.

To account for the versatility of a human system, scientists are beginning to use co-culture cell systems. These are systems that combine two or more cell lines. These types of models are beneficial for studies because they show how a response in the body is more likely to occur. Following toxic exposures, cells signal to each other to elicit a response to control for potential damage. For example, when a nanoparticle is inhaled it enters the lung. Once here, depending on the size of the particle, it travels to the alveolar region (the area of the lung responsible for oxygen exchange with the blood). Once in this region, if the particle is toxic, our immune response is activated. This means that immune cells, like macrophages, move toward the particle and attempt to engulf it to prevent further toxic effects. Immune cells often release chemicals that signal to other cells that damage has occurred. These signals then elicit responses, such as an inflammatory response, and additional cells are

Studies have revealed that the P2X7 receptor may hold some of these answers (Ferrari et al. 1997), (Perregaux and Gabel, 1998). P2X7 is said to be a key mediator in the activation and secretion of the interleukin-1 family of cytokines. Perhaps the two most well established are the mechanisms involved with the maturation and release of IL-1β and IL-18. Muñoz-Planillo et al. (2013) suggests that rapid K+ efflux acts as a co-signal alongside activation of toll-like receptors via pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These two signals combined are said to initiate the assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Whilst the signal received through toll-like receptors is responsible for the synthesis of inflammasome components and inactive forms of IL-1β and IL-18, the second signal received through rapid K+ efflux influences the assembly of the inflammasome itself leading to the activation of caspase-1. Caspase-1 processes and activates pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18

When John was first immunized with tetanus toxoid, dendritic cells first encounter the toxoid. Dendritic cell is a type of antigen presenting cell (APC) that can phagocyte and breaks down the pathogen into short peptides. The short peptides (antigen) then combine with MHC class 2 and are displayed on the surface of the APC. While this process is going on, the dendritic cell moves within the lymph channel to get to lymph node, where they can present the antigen to naïve T helper type 2 cells. (Th2). Each Th2 has its own unique T cell receptors (TCR) and only a particular TCR can bind to the antigen that is presented on APC with MHC class 2. Once APC finds the right TCR of Th2 (meaning CD4 binds to MH2 and the antigen binds to TCR), the