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MASS VIOLENCE 1 Active Shooters, Mass Murders, and Mass Shooters and its Impact on the Public Tiffani Priebe University of Central Florida Crime Victims – SYP 4521 Dr. Lin Huff-Corzine November 10, 2021

MASS VIOLENCE 2 Active Shooters, Mass Murders, and Mass Shooters and its Impact on the Public Within today’s American society, mass violence is both a terrifying and fascinating phenomena. People all across the United States gets drawn into any media related to mass violence, hoping to understand what would drive someone to do this violent act. The term mass violence encompasses multiple different types of mass causalities, such as, active shooters, mass murders, and mass shooters. Within United States of America there has been multiple incidents of mass violence, such as: bombing at Bath Consolidated School in Michigan 1927; mass shooting at Virginia Tech in 2007; and mass shooting at Pulse night club in Orlando, Florida in 2016. However, there are inconsistencies when it comes to defining what mass violence is. Many researchers have been trying to define what constitutes mass violence which includes active shooters, mass murders, and mass shooters which has caused there to be no universal definition. Each definition has a different focal point, as in some definitions focus on the number of deaths, weapon used, crimes with few deaths and many injuries, perceived target or the motive used (NMVVRC). For instance, Office for Victims of Crime defines mass violence as “an intentional violent crime that results in physical, emotional, or psychological injury to a large number of people and increases the burden of victim assistance and compensation for the responding jurisdiction (Office for Victims of Crime, 2016).” The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines mass murder “as four or more victims in one event in either one or multiple locations (Krouse & Richardsan, 2015).” The United States Congress defines mass shooting “as a multiple homicide incident in which four or more victims are murdered with firearms, within one event, and in one or more locations in close proximity (Huff-Corzine & Corzine, 2020).” Lastly the FBI defines active shooters as “as one or more individuals actively engaged in killing or attempting to kill people in a populated area (“Active shooter.,” 2021).”

MASS VIOLENCE 3 With no universal definition of mass violence it becomes difficult to collect statistical data on these incidents. For instance, if you comply all mass violence incidents from 2006 to 2016, where four or more victim fatalities (not including the death of offender) accrued in a short period of time, regardless of weapon used and intended target you can come to the conclusion that the rates of mass murders has stayed statically unchanged (King & Jacobson, 2017). However, if you comply the data regarding single active shooters and mass shootings incidents “as variously defined indicate an increase in number and frequency, and the intervals between incidents seem to be getting shorter and the toll of injuries and deaths seems to be becoming greater (“Mass Violence.,” 2019).” Regardless, of how you define mass violence to statistically study this phenomena, it’s still consider rare within the United States (“Mass Violence.,” 2019). However mass violence incidents leaves a wake of individuals who are affected either physically or mentally. The Effects of Mass Violence Mass violence incidents has both a physical and emotional toll that occurs within the surrounding areas of the incident and the emotional tool can spread miles away through media attention. “Mass violence evokes disproportionately greater public, media and government reactions than any other forms of violence (“Mass Violence.,” 2019),” leading to national wide panic demanding for more protocols and policies to protect the public. Direct Victims of Mass Violence Mass Violence can have range of effects on individuals who were present during the incident ranging from the development of psychological illnesses, physical injury to death. Development of psychological illness is second to an individual losing their life, however some individuals do face some serve emotional distress that can last in the long term or short term.

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MASS VIOLENCE 4 Human mass violence incidents cause many individuals to experience survivor guilt, self-blame, and a sense of being unworthy of assistance (Naturale, 2017). Many individuals experience Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder symptoms (PTSD) within the first couple years after an incident whereas anxiety and depression might last longer (Naturale, 2017). The study of the after effects of survivors is still fairly new, however from the current studies most survivors are resilient, and the individuals who develop mental health problems are within the minority; approximately 20% of the population develops diagnosable conditions (Novotney, 2018; Naturale, 2017). Individuals who are at higher risk for mental health problems and or experience long term problems are those who sustained injury, have family member that was injured, those who were threatened or witnessed injury, and those who experienced panic and fear (Naturale, 2017). First Responders First responders are the individuals who are the first on the scene, such as law enforcement, Emergency Medical Technicians (EMTs), paramedics, and firefighters. First responders are susceptible injuries, death, witness violent acts, which all have a potential to affect cognition, emotions, and behaviors (Lanza & Rodgers, 2018). With the increase of Mass Violence incidents, there has been a growing interest in the mental health of first responder’s aftermaths. Research shows that man-made Mass Violence incidents leads to more negative psychological consequences than natural disasters (Wilson, 2015). Since there are multiple different fields that fall under first responders, the difference in PTSD risk is based on level of life risk, job activites, and hours worked following these events. “When examined across different man-made events, firefighters have reported greater risk of developing PTSD, followed by EMT personnel, and then law enforcement (Wilson, 2015).” “The rates of PTSD amongst

MASS VIOLENCE 5 first responders ranges from 8% to 32%, compared to the general population of U.S. Americans lifetime rates of 6.8% to 7.8% (Lanza et al., 2018). Media’s role With today’s world, everyone will have some sort of media interaction, whether it be through the newspaper, google, social media, television shows, or podcasts. A lot of people spend hours on the web or listening to the news to get updated on social events within their state, country, or the world. Media is great at getting information out however it is not free from negative reactions to the public. Mass Violence media attention effects on indirect individuals Indirect victims are people who get there information either from friends, family, and media. These people can be all over the nation can experience some sort PTSD symptoms, anxiety, and distress. Media gives the illusions of close proximity which increases the fear of life threat, and regardless if individuals know someone within the incident or someone close by, or they were directly involved; Believing one’s life is in danger is linked to PTSD symptoms, stress, anxiety, and distress (Heir et al., 2016). Understanding the effect of perceived life threat on individuals, it is understandable that when communities read and hear about Mass Violence incidents increased the levels of PTSD symptoms, stress, anxiety, and distress amongst the individuals not directly present. With the upcoming generation (Generation Z) within the shadow of some infamous Mass Violence incidents like the Columbine school shooting pair and growing up in a very technological era, these youth have been negatively impacted. For instance, since the Columbine incident new policies have been put into place such as active shooter drills and lockdowns, leading to many of individuals within Generation Z to have increased stress levels and fear of a

MASS VIOLENCE 6 possible school shooter (Felix, Janson, M., Fly, J., & Powers, J., 2021). With this in mind when students hear rumors of a recent school shooter, students rely on social media for updates increasing the distress levels of students who believe in these channels such as Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook (Jones et al., 2019). Students who do rely on social media for updates are exposed to more rumor or false information thereby increasing stress levels, and users who share related information to Mass Violence incidents, whether the information is true or false is also linked to increased negative emotions. Mass Violence media attention effects on direct victims The study on the survivors of these types on incidents is not widely studied, however like everyone else survivors will go to media to get updates. This type of media exposure could be very harmful for the survivors, such as possibly leading to individuals developing survivor’s guilt and feeling worse about surviving. This media exposure suggest that it has an impact on how resilient survivors are and how severe the individual’s mental health level will be. Another study was conducted on how journalists questions effects the severity of mental health on survivors. It was found that if survivors are asked questions about their experiences or related thoughts on a recent mass violence incident these individuals’ experienced higher levels of PTSD versus individuals who refused to answer (Felix, Moore, S. A., Meskunas, H., & Terzieva, A., 2021) Ideas on how to combat Mass Violence The problem with trying to create prevention measures for Mass Violence, specifically mass murder, mass shootings, and active shooters; is that there is not one clear path to take. Each Mass violence incident has a wide range of problems that could have caused the offender to act out and a wide range of past behavior that could have or could not have predicted the incident.

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MASS VIOLENCE 7 For example after the Columbine incident increased training for law enforcement happened, the creation of “see something, say something” campaign started, and “red flag” laws started in some states on firearms; All of these are measures is a good starting point to prevention measures but what are the long term ones? Mental Health Many individuals and the Media make the connection between mental illness and Mass Violence. The heightened attention leads many people to believe that mental health problems are the driving factor in mass shooting, mass murder, and active shooter incidents. Approximately only 3% to 5% of violent acts committed in the United States can actually can be attributed to some sort of mental illness (Skeem & Mulvey; 2020). However when it comes to mass violence the mentally ill is over represented. With approximately two thirds of the offenders list of mass shooters consisting of individuals with either a diagnosed mental illness or symptoms of one leads many researchers unwilling to ignore the possible connection (“Mass shooter database;” 2019). Since the mentally ill is overrepresented within mass shooters more government officials are focusing on what can be done to help stop potentially violent individuals. To start with as a Nation we still need to work towards the goal of distinguishing the stigma surrounding mental illness. Many individuals still believe that getting labeled as mentally ill will harm their social life and their future in devours. Continually educating the public on distinguishing the stigma on mental illness will increase the likelihood of individuals seeking help when needed. While working towards a less stigmatized nation, the knowledge of potentially harmful or worrisome behaviors must be made known to the public. Having more individuals who know signs of

MASS VIOLENCE 8 mental illness can help encourage those who show signs to go to health professional to get the needed help. Even though working towards a less stigmatized nation helps individuals feel safer to get help it does not change that not everyone has access to mental health professionals. Paying for medical help within the United States is not attainable by many individuals. Expanding the access of mental health like the U.S. government did with health issues for instances, like adding a mental health department in emergency rooms or creating more community access treatment centers, or even creating cheaper insurances to help make mental health professional more affordable. However to say that these changes will help is unknown but the overrepresentation of offenders with mental health illness within the known cases of Mass Violence is a potential factor to these acts that cannot be ignored. Gun access Many of the Mass Violence acts that has occurred within the United States regarding mass shooting, mass murder, and active shooters occurred with a firearm. Approximately 50% of Mass Violence incidents, the offenders acquired their firearm/s legally, either through a retail shop, private seller, or other legal means (“Mass shooter database;” 2019). Out of the firearms that were used 78% were handguns and 28% where semiautomatic assault rifles (“Mass shooter database;” 2019). Within America there is a strong gun culture making it difficult to create a law to ban all firearms, so alternative laws must be made. The gun culture within the United States is caused by multiple different reasons, such as many Americans believe that having a gun within their household adds to more protection and others have guns specifically for hunting seasons. Whatever the case is for someone to buy a gun, the United States has the most gun ownership per capita in the world (Sanchez et al.; 2020).

MASS VIOLENCE 9 The increased gun ownership within the resent years has sparked research interest on the difference between permissive and restrictive gun laws. One study showed that states with restrictive gun laws has seen less mass shooting incidents versus their counter parts that have higher rates of mass shooting (Reeping et al.; 2019). This study shows positive results of decreasing mass violence incidents by controlling the main weapon used. With the study in mind, all states should intact laws that restrict at risk individuals, such as individuals with a diagnosed potentially life threatening (either to themselves or others) mental illness, individuals with addictions (alcohol and drugs), violent criminal history, and emotional distressed individuals. Having laws like Gun Violence Restraining Orders and risk warrants (formed in California) could potentially save lives, and it has been theorized that this law could be potentially very effective in the prevention measures against Mass Violence (Laqueur, & Wintemute; 2020). This law prevents at risk individuals from legally buying a firearm and also recovers firearms from individuals who become at risk individuals. Laws like this could have prevented events like the Colorado movie theater shooting in 2012 by James Holmes, because his psychiatrist deemed him to be an at risk individual months before the incident. Community efforts There are many aspects that the community can help government officials when it comes to potential offenders. As a nation the campaign “see something, say something” that started in 2010 by Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has started to pick up more attention within its efforts in combating Mass Violence. This campaign reaches out to the public and informs about potential signs to terrorist acts and which has been effective in dealing with mass shooters and active shooter incidents. Some signs DHS warns about are expressed or implied threat,

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MASS VIOLENCE 10 surveillance, weapons collection, cyberattack, and other warning signs (“Recognize the signs”). However when it comes to Mass Violence in the sense of mass shooting, mass murder, and active shooters, the offenders typically express the desires either face-to-face or online first before the incident. With this in mind, as a nation we need to train ourselves to be aware that anyone can be potential offender and any potential threat can be serious and only law enforcement can deem the threat credible or not. However people have a tendency to have a “blind-spot” for their friends and family members. The pressure of potentially breaking the relationship prevents many from alerting the police. This “blind-spot” can be worked around if more security measures are put into place on all levels of life, such as the workplace, all levels of schooling, and social media. Workplace Within the workplace, everyone should keep an eye on each other, like a “buddy system.” All potential risky behavior should be reported to the authorities in a timely manner and all incidents needs to be researched fully to take the necessary corrective actions. There should also be more seminars given to employees and higher ups on what is consider risky behavior and what to do. The workplace itself should enforce security measures, such as surveillance system and easy access to radios or telephones. The workplace should also be willing to help give information to affordable medical locations to any employees who are seeking help whether it be physical and mentally related. All levels of schooling As of right now all authority figures within school system are required to say something if a potential student is a threat to the school. Having the teachers more interactive with their students learning there life style and keeping up with the times is a great way to keep updated on

MASS VIOLENCE 11 the potential risky students. Within university’s this aspect would be more difficult to do with the class sizes, however teachers can still give the access to their students so they may get in contact with either the professor themselves or someone more applicable. There should be signs or posters around campus that allows the students to alert the police if something is being shared around. Social Media With the increased in online threats being made there should be more actions made by the social media companies to combat and help identify all threats to authorities. Right now the only way for police to be notified if a threatening message is shared on social media is through community alerts. There should be algorithms that are set up for threating words, such as “shoot up” and a named victim or place. However since America has free speech, the algorithms has to have a safety net from a group of individuals who then should distinguish if the message was a possible threat or just aggressive speech. These algorithms would help warn police at a faster rate than the public, allowing for faster intervention if the threat is seen as credible. Also there should be more information on the consequences of making threats on social media to potentially shame the individual into not taking act, because shame is more powerful predictor. Conclusion Mass Violence is a very difficult topic to talk about and the act itself is very hard to understand. Many people are fascinated on the “why” some people are willing to take their anger and frustrations out in such an aggressive manner. Even though there are definitional issues that need to be sorted out, everyone on earth can agree that the impact these acts have on both the direct and indirect public is devastating. The effects and long term impact causes out cry for possible solutions in how to prevent and discourage potential offenders. The solutions that are

MASS VIOLENCE 12 listed in this paper could be considered long or short term fixes. The cause of these behaviors is difficult to pin point but with the commonalities amongst the studied Mass Violence cases shows that mental illness could be a potential cause; the easy access to firearms with lack of background checks; and the lack of safety measures in place on the community level. The solutions listed within this paper is at least a starting point in the prevention measures against Mass Violence, but further studies on what causes individuals to take these acts need to happen to better put together more effective long term solutions. They found that students who relied on critical updates from many social media channels (e.g., Facebook, Twitter), and trusted what they read, reported more distress than students who trusted those channels less. They also

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MASS VIOLENCE 13 found that students who relied on Twitter for critical updates reported more exposure to distressing untrue rumors about the shooting (e.g., multiple shooters and victi

MASS VIOLENCE 14 References Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C., and the Advanced Law Enforcement Rapid Response Training (ALERRT) Center at Texas State University. (2021). Active shooter incidents in the United States in 2020 . Retrieved November 9, 2021, from https://www.fbi.gov/file-repository/active-shooter-incidents-in- the-us-2020-070121.pdf. Felix, Janson, M., Fly, J., & Powers, J. (2021). Social-cognitive mediators of the relationship of media exposure to acute mass violence and distress among adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry . https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000580 Heir, Blix, I., & Knatten, C. K. (2016). Thinking that one’s life was in danger: perceived life threat in individuals directly or indirectly exposed to terror. British Journal of Psychiatry , 209 (4), 306–310. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.115.170167 ) Huff-Corzine, L, Corzine, J. The devil's in the details: Measuring mass violence. Criminol Public Policy . 2020; 19: 317– 333. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12482 Jones, Brymer, M., & Silver, R. C. (2019). Using Big Data to Study the Impact of Mass Violence: Opportunities for the Traumatic Stress Field. Journal of Traumatic Stress , 32 (5), 653–663. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22434 King, D. M., & Jacobson, S. H. (2017). Random Acts of Violence? Examining Probabilistic Independence of the Temporal Distribution of Mass Killing Events in the United States. Violence and Victims , 32 (6), 1014–1023. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV- D-16-00039 Krouse, W., & Richardson, D. J. (2015). Mass murder with firearms: Incidents and victims,

MASS VIOLENCE 15 1999–2013 . Washington: Congressional Research Service. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44126.pdf Lanza, Roysircar, G., & Rodgers, S. (2018). First Responder Mental Healthcare: Evidence-Based Prevention, Postvention, and Treatment. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice , 49 (3), 193–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000192 ) Laqueur, & Wintemute, G. J. (2020). Identifying high‐risk firearm owners to prevent mass violence. Criminology & Public Policy , 19 (1), 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745- 9133.12477 Mass shooter database, 1966-2019. (2019). The Violence Project. National Council for Mental Wellbeing. (2019, August). Mass Violence in America [Review of Mass Violence in America ]. National Council Medical Director Institute. www.TheNationalCouncil.org Naturale, Lowney, L. T., & Brito, C. S. (2017). Lessons Learned from the Boston Marathon Bombing Victim Services Program. Clinical Social Work Journal , 45 (2), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-017-0624-7 NMVVRC - About Mass Violence . (n.d.). Www.nmvvrc.org. https://www.nmvvrc.org/learn/about-mass-violence/ Novotney, A. (2018, September). What happens to the survivors? Monitor on Psychology. Retrieved November 11, 2021, from https://www.apa.org/monitor/2018/09/survivors. Office for Victims of Crime. (2016). “Office for Victims of Crime, Antiterrorism Emergency Assistance Program (AEAP) Brochure.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime. https://www.ovc.gov/pdftxt/AEAP_Brochure.pdf Recognize the signs . Department of Homeland Security. (2021, February 26). Retrieved

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MASS VIOLENCE 16 November 23, 2021, from https://www.dhs.gov/see-something-say-something/recognize- the-signs. Reeping, Cerda, M., Kalesan, B., Wiebe, D. J., Galea, S., & Branas, C. C. (2019). State gun laws, gun ownership, and mass shootings in the US: cross sectional time series. BMJ (Online) , 364 , l542–l542. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l542 Sanchez, Jaguan, D., Shaikh, S., McKenney, M., & Elkbuli, A. (2020). A systematic review of the causes and prevention strategies in reducing gun violence in the United States. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine , 38 (10), 2169–2178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2020.06.062 Skeem, & Mulvey, E. (2020). What role does serious mental illness play in mass shootings, and how should we address it? Criminology & Public Policy , 19 (1), 85–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12473 Wilson. (2015). A systematic review of probable posttraumatic stress disorder in first responders following man-made mass violence. Psychiatry Research , 229 (1), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.06.015

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