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Explain the inadequacies of the various historical perspectives on psychopathology, and explain why the concept of a multidimensional integrative approach to psychopathology appears to be the most logical choice to understanding mental disorders Psychopathology today is has come a long way since its development. It wasn’t until the early 20 th century that the shift towards accepting mental health disorders had distinct causes, before then it was believed to have been supernatural forces at play. (Jutras, 2017) This lead to the creation of two main theories about the causes of mental illness, psychodynamic and behaviorist perspectives. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist, strongly suggested in his psychodynamic theories that there was an importance in the unconscious inner workings of the human psyche. He believed that a person’s unconscious is where substantial bearing was held on their behaviors, personality, and mental capacity. (Maddux, 2015) James B. Watson suggested that individuals learn through interactions that occur in their environment causing a conditioning process to take place, which in turn influences their behaviors, leading to the behaviorist theory. (Maddux, 2015) With the two theories created, the theoretical frameworks of psychopathology were developed with a focus on the importance of creating an approach for mental health disorders through diagnostics and treatments. This lead to the publication of the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual: Mental Disorders (DSM-1) by the American Psychiatric Association in 1952. (Maddux, 2015) This publication allowed for changes to the existing classification system and medication treatment to be changed, setting a standard in the field. To demonstrate the importance of a multidimensional integrative approach to psychopathology advancements needed to be made to remedy the inadequate historical perspective. Empirical evidence, confirmed through observational methods, develop the treatment methods and diagnostic criteria to be used. (Maddux, 2015) When trying to understand mental health disorders practitioners use the process of elimination to maneuver through many obstacles and determine the proper diagnosis and treatment needed. By using a multidimensional approach practitioners can eliminate some of the difficulties they are faced with because it establishes a solid foundation for diagnosing mental health disorders. (Maddux, 2015) References Jutras, M. (2017). BC Medical Journal. Historical perspectives on the theories, diagnosis, and treatment of mental illness. https://bcmj.org/mds-be/historical-perspectives-theories-diagnosis- and-treatment-mental-illness Maddux, J., Gosselin, J., Winstead, B. (2015). Psychpathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=2194932 What are some of the main strengths and limitations of using an atheoretical, categorical approach as found in the DSM-5?
The Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 th edition (DSM-5) uses an atheoretical categorical approach to establish an outline of the standard diagnostic criteria for the many mental health disorders based on which symptoms are exhibited with a particular disorder. (Maddux, 2015) The manual primarily uses categorical systems, but it also includes some aspects of dimensionality. Incorporating both of the atheotrtical and categorical approaches it does create different strengths and limitations within the DSM-5. One of the main strengths of using the approach is the standardization it provides when using the diagnostic criteria contained in the DSM. (Fritscher, 2023) This provides therapists with a quick frame of reference when trying to reach a diagnostic conclusion based on the symptoms an individual is experiencing. The standardization and nomenclature used also allows practitioners in other locations to communicate with one another and come to the same diagnostic conclusions based on the criteria available. This is due to the DSM-5 being aligned with the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The ICD is the diagnostic manual which is mainly used in other countries. (Maddux, 2015) Even though the DSM-5 has some strengths, there are some limitations to it as well. The specific language that is used in the DSM-5 can be considered both, a strength and a weakness. However, a practitioner shouldn’t rely solely on the DSM-5 or they may overlook some important information that may be needed for an accurate diagnosis, things like what may have occurred in their past that lead to the illness. Another limitation could be the revision of the manual to make it more atheoretical meant the removal of verbiage pertaining to psychodynamic constructs, which lead to the criteria for diagnosis being left too objective. (Maddux, 2015) References Fritscher, L. (Jan. 17, 2023) Verywell Mind. Advantages and disadvantages of the Diagnostic statistical manual. https://www.verywellmind.com/dsm-friend-or-foe-2671930 Maddux, J., Gosselin, J., Winstead, B. (2015). Psychpathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=2194932 What lifestyle and behavioral variables correlate with a greater chance of suicide attempts and completion? According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the most recent report on suicide data and statistics shows that in 2022, suicides increased by 2.6 percent since 2021with 49,449 deaths by suicide in the U.S. (CDC, 2023) The study showed that the highest percentage of suicide completion was carried out during the summer months and mostly were White males. (CDC, 2023) The National Institute of Health point out that certain factors contribute to an increased risk of suicide like, sedentary behaviors, weight issues, those socially isolated. (Berardelli, 2018) There are many reasons why someone might commit suicide, but the most common are depression and bipolar disorder. (Maddux, 2015) The CDC stated risk of suicide among depressed individuals is approximately 20 times greater than in the general population and 60 times greater in individuals with bipolar disorder than the general population. (Maddux, 2015) Some of the factors that can lead to suicide are gender, substance abuse or addiction, mental health disorders, and major life stressors or events.
References Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (Nov. 29, 2023). Suicide data and statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/suicide/suicide-data-statistics.html Berardelli, I., Corigliano, V., Hawkins, M., Comparelli, A., Erbuto, D., Pompili, M. (2018). National Library of Medicine. Lifestyle Interventions and Prevention of Suicide. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6232529/#:~:text=Sedentary%20behaviors%2C %20weight%20issues%20and,mental%20health%20problems%20and%20suicide . What is the defining difference between making a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder versus Bipolar Disorder? What variables are associated with a better treatment outcome? A poorer treatment outcome? Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Bipolar Disorder (BD) have some similarities being that they’re both mood disorders, but that doesn’t mean that they’re the same. The characteristics that define them are what practitioners need to consider before determining a diagnosis. There are some main differences between these two disorders like, severity, duration, and the nature of their symptoms. (Maddux, 2015) One clear difference between the two is MDD only has one phase: depression, whereas BD has two phases: mania and depression. (Ellis, 2023) MDD is a serious mood disorder that is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain with long lasting symptoms that are so severe they can interrupt a person’s everyday life. (Ellis, 2023) Some of the symptoms are feeling sad or hopeless, bouts of crying, irritability and frustration, little to no interest in fun activities, sleeping too much or too little, lack of energy, low appetite, anxiety and restlessness, feeling guilty or worthless, trouble thinking, concentrating, decision making and remembering, and thoughts of death. (Ellis, 2023) If MDD is left untreated the individual would be at risk of developing comorbid anxiety disorder, substance disorders, interpersonal relationships, sever functional impairment, and possibly higher risk of suicide. Depression can aggravate diabetes, hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and coronary artery disease. (NIH, 2023) BD has three categories: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and Cyclothymia and the ability to experience an “up” phase. Some symptoms are feeling overly confident and optimistic, feeling irritated and acting aggressively, not being tired and staying awake for long periods, grand thoughts, inflated sense of self-importance, talking quickly, acting impulsively with poor judgement, delusions and hallucinations. (Ellis, 2023) These symptoms of manic episodes usually develop across a span of a few days and are relatively short in duration and can occur on a semi-frequent basis with the proper medical interventions. (Maddux, 2015) Both MDD and BD can benefit from some form of psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). (Ellis, 2023) Keeping the stress levels low, maintaining a healthy diet, getting enough sleep, and exercising regularly can help manage both disorders. (Ellis, 2023) The common medications prescribed for MDD are antidepressants, however they aren’t recommended for people with BD because they can trigger manic episodes. The common medications for BD are mood stabilizers because they can help control mania and antipsychotics which can also treat mania, but will also see the difference in their depressive symptoms. (Ellis, 2023)
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If a person’s bipolar disorder is left untreated it could lead to serious problems like substance abuse, financial issues, interpersonal difficulties and even possible suicide. (Wade, 2024) References Maddux, J., Gosselin, J., Winstead, B. (2015). Psychpathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=2194932 Ellis, R. (Dec. 15, 2023). WebMD. Bipolar Depression vs. Major Depressive Disorder. https://www.webmd.com/bipolar-disorder/bipolar-depression-vs-major-depression Wade, D. (Mar. 14, 2024). Medical news today. The effect of untreated bipolar disorder. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/untreated-bipolar-disorder National Library of Medicine. (Apr. 10, 2023). Major Depressive Disorder. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/#:~:text=It%20not%20only%20causes %20a,increases%20their%20risk%20of%20suicide . Discuss the gender differences found in personality disorders. Give specific examples of disorders where gender differences occur. Do the disparities indicate differences between men and women in certain basic experiences that are genetic, sociocultural, or both, or do they represent biases on the part of the clinicians who make the diagnoses? When discussing personality disorders research hasn’t addressed if people who are different genders often meet the criteria. (Klonsky, n.d.) A study in the DSM-5 found that men have more antisocial, narcissistic, paranoid, and schizoid personality disorders. (Klonsky, n.d.) Women are found to have a more dependent personality disorder criteria like schizotypal, borderline, histrionic, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive. (Klonsky, n.d.) However, the study showed that men who are more feminine exhibited more features of all the personality disorders with the exception of antisocial. However, the antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is the only disorder that occurs more often in men due to their sociobiological factors and their genetic predispositions. (Klonsky, n.d.) There are significant levels of criticism about the claims of research findings supporting various gender differences in diagnoses outlined in the DSM-5. Critics claim that the diagnostic criteria used to determine the pathological findings in personality disorders were often biased. This is due to most of the disorders being based on feminine traits and societal views depicting women as overly emotional and less self-reliant. (Maddux, 2015) However, women are found to be more likely to seek out treatment for their ailments than men which is why the reported percentages may be a skew. There is such a stigma about a person seeking mental health services, but women are still more often to seek the help they need than a man. This is mainly because men are more often made to feel ashamed of seeking medical help for mental health disorders. For years, men have had to deal with societal pressures and expectations surrounding masculinity and had to learn to suppress their emotions. (Maddux, 2015)
References Klonsky, E., Jane, J., Turkheimer, E., Oltmanns, T. (n.d.). National Library of Medicine. Gender role and personality disorders. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4364134/#:~:text=A%20total%20of %2027%25%20of,endorsed%20dependent%20personality%20disorder%20criteria . Maddux, J., Gosselin, J., Winstead, B. (2015). Psychpathology: Foundations for a Contemporary Understanding. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=2194932