Ray_10e_IMTB_Chapter_05

.pdf

School

Kibabii University College *

*We aren’t endorsed by this school

Course

RESEARCH P

Subject

Psychology

Date

Nov 24, 2024

Type

pdf

Pages

Uploaded by BarristerBeaverPerson559

Chapter 5 – Description of Behavior Through Numerical Representation Chapter Outline Measurement Scales of Measurement Nominal Measurement Ordinal Measurement Interval Measurement Ratio Measurement Identifying Scales of Measurement Measurement and Statistics Pictorial Description of Frequency Information Descriptive Statistics Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variability Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data Transforming Data Standard Scores Measure of Association Chapter Overview Behavior is described through measurement that exists at four basic levels or scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Statistics are used to help us make sense of data. A frequency distribution provides a pictorial representation of frequency information from an experiment. Distributions of scores may take several shapes, such as a bimodal distribution or skewed distribution. Mean, median, and mode are commonly used measures of central tendency. The choice of which one to use depends on the distribution. Variability can be measured by range and standard deviation. Numerical data can be represented in line and bar graphs. Data can be transformed from one scale to another and to meet statistical assumptions. Standard scores such as z scores allow comparison of scores to other scores. Association between variables can be depicted in a scatter diagram and with correlation coefficients, which may be positive or negative. Correlation does not show causal relationships between variables, but does have value in prediction. Chapter Objectives 1. Measurement theory requires us to ask what two questions when doing research? 2. Compare and contrast the different scales of measurement. 3. Cite two ways to display data. CHAPTER 5 78

4. What three measures of central tendency are discussed in the text and what are their characteristics? 5. Discuss the concept of variability. Give examples of three different measures of variability and describe their functions. 6. Why is it common to transform data? Relate transformation of data to the concept of z-scores. 7. What is correlation? How does it aid us in understanding the relationship between variables? 8. How would you define a positive correlation? How would you define a negative correlation? 9. What can you say about the effect of one variable on the other in correlational studies? 10. What information is derived from squaring the correlation coefficient? How does this relate to variability accounted for? 11. Why is it important to assess underlying distribution before calculating correlations? Teaching Points There are several helpful points to make regarding scales of measurement. First, each subsequent scale builds upon the previous scale. Second, to make reasonable conclusions, one must be sensitive to the use of statistics for a particular scale. Third, use the acronym NOIR, the French word for black, as a cue for the scales of measurement. The chapter makes the excellent point that “statistics do not know and do not care where your numbers come from.” For instance, you could calculate a mean from nominal level data, but the result would be meaningless. Students might recognize this as an example of “garbage in garbage out.” Students often do not possess good graphing skills and have difficulty remembering what variables go on which axes. It would be helpful to give them practice at graphing by using one or more of the activities described below. Remind students that a “0” in a dataset counts in determining the number of scores in calculating the mean. Many students think too much about the mean (and central tendency in general) and not enough about variability. It is useful to demonstrate both mathematically and graphically that two or more data sets can have identical means but be very different in terms of how dispersed the values are in each set. CHAPTER 5 79

Another area of challenge for students is how and why skewed distributions affect the choice of a measure of central tendency, in addition to difficulty with conceptually understanding standardized scores like z-scores. Students may also get hung up on the words positive and negative . Emphasize that positive correlation does not refer to a good correlation nor does negative correlation refer to a bad correlation. Teaching Activities Using Students as Subjects This chapter lends itself well to collecting and analyzing and creating distributions of data gotten from your students. Here are some ideas:  construct frequency distributions for height, weight, shoe size, and gender  calculate measures of central tendency and standard deviation for height and shoe size  transform the scores of height in z-scores  construct a scatter diagram with height and shoe size  calculate correlation coefficient between height and shoe size  calculate correlation coefficient between shoe size and number of siblings Dissect a Graph Supply students with a set of graphs and ask them to label and critique every part. It may be best to use a variety of graphs and to even include errors. Include graphs with error bars because students often have trouble interpreting what these indicators of variability mean. Tables and Graphs in the Popular Media Locate tables and graphs used in the popular media and bring them into class. Let students examine them and formulate conclusions. Next compare the conclusions generated by the students to the conclusions that accompanied the table or graph. Augment this activity with examples of poorly constructed tables and graphs that are available from the web site described below. Measures of Central Tendency in the Popular Media As the textbook suggests, we hear about these measures often in the popular media. Bring in examples of articles and ads that refer to a measure. Suggest that without other information, it is difficult to know if the appropriate measure was used. Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/stats_ wrk.html DESCRIPTION OF BEHAVIOR THROUGH NUMERICAL REPRESENTATION 80

The Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop site contains links to several sections relevant to students after reading the chapter. For example, Scale of Measurement discusses the four levels of measurement of variables in psychological research, their abstract number properties, and the types of statistics that are permitted for each variable. The tutorial ends with a summary and students can test their knowledge in identifying scales of measurement by doing the practice exercises. Another workshop entitled Central Tendency and Variability provides information on how to summarize various kinds of data. Students are led through an example that exercises their skill in calculating measures of central tendency and variability. The workshop segment z Scores elaborates on the value of the z score and provides a step-by-step process of calculating z. Finally, the section on Correlation describes the types of correlations (positive, negative, and zero) and introduces the formula for the Pearson’s correlation coefficient. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz. Internet Resources Measurement theory (ftp://ftp.sas.com/pub/neural/measurement.faq) This site provides additional information on measurement theory, scales of measurement, and transformations. The Best and Worst of Statistical Graphics (www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/) This site has some interesting examples of poorly conceptualized and created attempts at representing data visually. More resources on statistics (http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/) Elementary statistical concepts are explained concisely and effectively. Of particular interest is the statistical glossary. Datasets (lib.stat.cmu.edu/datasets) (http://www.umass.edu/statdata/) If you need real data to illustrate statistical concepts, these sites have many datasets from a variety of disciplines. The second site groups the datasets by what statistics would be appropriate to analyze the data. Statistics links (www.mccombs.utexas.edu/faculty/jonathan.koehler/links/statistics.asp) This site contains many links to interesting articles and activities related to statistics. Some of the topics addressed by the sites include games, gambling, sports, correlation, and comprehensive statistics sites. Suggested Readings Huff, D., & Geis, I. (1994). How to lie with statistics. New York: W. W. Norton. This amusing book is easy reading full of actual examples of statistical misuses. CHAPTER 5 81

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 5 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research. 1. Physical Activity and Mood: A Correlational Study. For one week record the information using the following scales: Rate your level of physical activity on the following scale: 1. Very physically active 2. Moderately physically active 3. Somewhat physically active 4. Not very physically active 5. Very physically inactive Rate your level of mood on the following scale: 1. Very good mood 2. Relatively good mood 3. Neutral 4. Somewhat of a bad mood 5. Very bad mood Date Time of day Physical Activity Rating Mood Rating 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. DESCRIPTION OF BEHAVIOR THROUGH NUMERICAL REPRESENTATION 82

Research Flowchart: Fill in the following information. A. State your research hypothesis. B. Operationally define your variables. C. State measures you controlled or held constant. D. Graph data on a scatterplot. Label the axes and the graph. E. Calculate by using the Pearson's correlation coefficient. F. Interpret. State the coefficient of determination. 2. Parents, Sex Information, and Risk Taking Behavior: A Correlational Study. Administer the following survey to at least 15 individuals. This survey involves information regarding sexual attitudes and behavior. I will be using the information gathered from this survey to gain knowledge about graphing data. No names should be indicated on the survey, and all information will be kept completely confidential. If there are any questions that you do not wish to answer, please feel free to skip to the next question. Thank you for your participation. What is your gender? Male __________ Female __________ For the following questions please circle your response: 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5. 1. Did your parents discuss sex and its risks with you while you lived at home as an adolescent? 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Very much 2. How knowledgeable do you believe you are regarding sexually transmitted diseases, AIDS, and the risks of pregnancy? 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Very much 3. How much do you feel the information that your parents shared about sex and its risks has influenced your willingness to engage in safe sexual behaviors (e.g., using condoms)? 1 2 3 4 5 No influence Significant CHAPTER 5 83

Your preview ends here

Eager to read complete document? Join bartleby learn and gain access to the full version

Access to all documents
Unlimited textbook solutions
24/7 expert homework help

Recommended textbooks for you

Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)

Psychology

ISBN:9780134477961

Author:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White

Publisher:PEARSON

Cognitive Psychology

Psychology

ISBN:9781337408271

Author:Goldstein, E. Bruce.

Publisher:Cengage Learning,

Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and ...

Psychology

ISBN:9781337565691

Author:Dennis Coon, John O. Mitterer, Tanya S. Martini

Publisher:Cengage Learning

Psychology in Your Life (Second Edition)

Psychology

ISBN:9780393265156

Author:Sarah Grison, Michael Gazzaniga

Publisher:W. W. Norton & Company

Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research a...

Psychology

ISBN:9781285763880

Author:E. Bruce Goldstein

Publisher:Cengage Learning

Theories of Personality (MindTap Course List)

Psychology

ISBN:9781305652958

Author:Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen Schultz

Publisher:Cengage Learning

SEE MORE TEXTBOOKS

Recommended textbooks for you

Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)
Psychology
ISBN:9780134477961
Author:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White
Publisher:PEARSON
Cognitive Psychology
Psychology
ISBN:9781337408271
Author:Goldstein, E. Bruce.
Publisher:Cengage Learning,
Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and ...
Psychology
ISBN:9781337565691
Author:Dennis Coon, John O. Mitterer, Tanya S. Martini
Publisher:Cengage Learning
Psychology in Your Life (Second Edition)
Psychology
ISBN:9780393265156
Author:Sarah Grison, Michael Gazzaniga
Publisher:W. W. Norton & Company
Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research a...
Psychology
ISBN:9781285763880
Author:E. Bruce Goldstein
Publisher:Cengage Learning
Theories of Personality (MindTap Course List)
Psychology
ISBN:9781305652958
Author:Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen Schultz
Publisher:Cengage Learning