lab manual_axial skeleton_a+p (1)

3 Before we get started, look up the definitions of these common bone marking terms: Canal : Condyle : Facet : Fissure : Foramen : (see Module 10.18 Foramina of Skull) Fossa : Margin : Process : Throughout this exercise, you will notice bold terms. This is meant to focus your attention on these important words. Make sure you pay attention to any bold words and know how to explain their definitions and/or where they are located. Use the following modules to guide your exploration of the axial skeleton. As you explore these bones in Visible Body’s app, also locate the bones and bone markings on any available charts, models, or specimens. You may also find it helpful to palpate bones on yourself or make drawings of the bones with the bone markings labeled. The drawings don’t have to be perfect; just make sure the different bone markings are in the correct locations, relative to each other.

6 B. Types of Bones Bones have many different shapes, and the shape of a bone frequently correlates to its function. View the following modules and use them to answer the questions. 8.1 Bone Types 8.2 Flat Bones 8.3 Long Bones 8.4 Short Bones 8.5 Irregular Bones 8.6 Sesamoid Bones Femur (long bone) Phalanges (long bones) Pelvic bone (irregular bone) Humerus (long bone) Tibia and fibula (long bones) Vertebra (irregular bone) Patella (sesamoid bone) Tarsals (short bones)

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12 E. Calcium Homeostasis Examine the 3D anatomical views in Module 9.15 Calcium in the Skeleton (formerly 9.13) and 9.17 Healthy and Osteoporotic Bone (formerly 9.15), watch the video in Module 9.16 Osteoporosis (formerly 9.14), and answer the following questions. 1. Why is calcium necessary in our bodies? 2. What glands are responsible for secreting hormones that maintain calcium homeostasis? 3. Normally, bone is broken down at about the same rate as it is synthesized. What happens when bone resorption (breakdown) outpaces bone deposition (synthesis)? 4. What are some symptoms of osteoporosis ? Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Module 9.15 Calcium in the Skeleton (formerly 9.13)

15 Module 10.2 Skull (Part 2) Front bone Nasal bone Ethmoid bone Inferior nasal concha Maxilla bone Mandible Parietal bone Sphenoid bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone Lacrimal bone Occipital bone

18 Module 10.7 Sphenoid Bone Landmarks (Part 1) Body Inferior orbital fissure (sphenoid surface) Medial pterygoid plate Lesser wing Optic foramen Foramen rotundum Lateral pterygoid plate Greater wing Module 10.7 Sphenoid Bone Landmarks (Part 2) Optic foramen Lesser wing Posterior clinoid process Foramen lacerum (sphenoidal surface) Dorsum sellae Foramen rotundum Sella turcica Greater wing

21 Module 10.12 Maxilla Landmarks Infraorbital canal and foramen Zygomatic process Alveolar canals Frontal process Maxillary sinus Incisive fossa Hard palate Module 10.13 Mandible Landmarks Mental foramen Angle Ramus Dental alveoli Coronoid process Anterior border of ramus Sublingual fossa Body Mental tubercules

22 Module 10.14 Facial Skeleton II Lacrimal bone Vomer Nasal bones Inferior nasal conchae Module 10.15 Palatine Bone Landmarks Conchal crest Orbital process Sphenoid process Perpendicular plate Pyramidal process

23 1. Which bones compose the cranium? 2. Which bones are classified as facial bones? 3. Examine Module 10.4 Occipital Bone Landmarks to learn about the occipital bone . a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Foramen magnum ii. Hypoglossal canal iii. Occipital condyles iv. Condyloid foramen v. External occipital protuberance vi. Inferior nuchal line Module 10.16 Lacrimal Bone Landmarks Greater palatine canal Horizontal part

24 vii. Superior nuchal line viii. Jugular foramen (occipital surface) ix. Foramen lacerum (occipital surface) b. What structure passes through the foramen magnum? c. What structure is responsible for articulating with the vertebral column? 4. Examine Module 10.3 Cranial Bones to learn about the parietal bones . 5. Examine Module 10.5 Temporal Bone Landmarks to learn about the temporal bones . a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Petrous part ii. Zygomatic process (note how the zygomatic process of the temporal bone is different from the zygomatic process of the frontal bone) iii. Mandibular fossa iv. External auditory (acoustic) meatus v. Internal auditory (acoustic) meatus (turn the view around to the medial side of the bone to find this) vi. Styloid process vii. Mastoid process viii. Carotid canal ix. Jugular foramen (temporal surface) x. Foramen lacerum (temporal surface) b. Where does the lower jaw attach to the skull? c. Where do sound waves enter the ear?

25 6. Examine Module 10.6 Frontal Bone Landmarks to learn about the frontal bone. a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Supraorbital notch ii. Supraorbital margin iii. Glabella iv. Zygomatic process (note how the zygomatic process of the frontal bone is different from the zygomatic process of the temporal bone) 7. Examine Module 10.7 Sphenoid Bone Landmarks to learn about the sphenoid bone . a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Greater wing ii. Lesser wing iii. Sella turcica iv. Dorsum sellae (on the ridge posterior to the sella turcica) v. Optic foramen vi. Superior orbital fissure vii. Inferior orbital fissure (sphenoid surface) viii. Foramen rotundum ix. Foramen ovale x. Foramen spinosum xi. Foramen lacerum (sphenoidal surface) xii. Medial pterygoid plate xiii. Lateral pterygoid plate b. The pituitary gland is nicknamed the “master gland” of the body because it secretes many hormones that have widespread effects in the body. Which part of the sphenoid bone houses it? 8. Examine Module 10.8 Ethmoid Bone Landmarks to learn about the ethmoid bone .

26 a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Crista galli ii. Cribriform plate iii. Middle nasal concha iv. Superior nasal concha v. Perpendicular plate b. Olfactory nerves need to pass through which structure in order to detect odors in the nose? 9. Examine Modules 10.9 Skull Sutures and 10.10 Fontanelles to learn about sutures and fontanelles . a. Sutures are immovable joints between bones that are connected by short fibers. Identify the following sutures found on the skull: i. Coronal suture ii. Sagittal suture iii. Lambdoid suture iv. Squamous suture b. During fetal development, the skull bones initially form as plates with spaces between the bones, called fontanelles. Over time, these spaces will close completely to be replaced by sutures. Identify the following fontanelles found on the skull: i. Anterior fontanelle ii. Posterior fontanelle iii. Sphenoid fontanelle iv. Mastoid fontanelle 10. Examine Modules 10.11 Facial Skeleton I and 10.12 Maxilla Landmarks to learn about the maxillae . a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Alveolar canal ii. Alveolar process iii. Zygomatic process (note how this is different from the zygomatic processes of the frontal and temporal bones, but all point toward the zygomatic bone)

27 iv. Frontal process v. Hard palate vi. Incisive fossa vii. Inferior orbital fissure (maxillary surface) viii. Infraorbital canal and foramen ix. Maxillary sinus b. What structures insert into the alveolar canal? c. What structure forms the roof of the mouth? 11. Examine Modules 10.11 Facial Skeleton I and 10.13 Mandible Landmarks to learn about the mandible . a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Body ii. Ramus iii. Angle vi. Condyle vii. Dental alveoli viii. Mandibular foramen ix. Mental foramen b. Which part of the mandible attaches to the cranium? Where does it articulate? 12. Examine Module 10.11 Facial Skeleton I to learn about the zygomatic bones . The zygomatic bones are shaped roughly like triangles, with each vertex pointing toward a different bone: the temporal bone, maxilla, or frontal bone. a. Identify the following bone markings: i. Temporal process

28 ii. Maxillary process iii. Frontal process 13. Examine Modules 10.14 Facial Skeleton II and 10.15 Palatine Bone Landmarks to learn about the palatine bones . 14. Examine Modules 10.14 Facial Skeleton II and 10.16 Lacrimal Bone Landmarks to learn about the lacrimal bones and identify each lacrimal fossa . 15. Examine Module 10.14 Facial Skeleton II to learn about the nasal bones , inferior nasal conchae bones , and vomer .

29 B. Cavities of the Skull View Modules 10.19 Bones of the Orbit and 10.20 Nasal Septum and use them to answer the following questions. 1. Which bones compose the orbit ? 2. Which bones and cartilages compose the nasal septum ? 3. Which bones compose the oral cavity ? 4. Which bones compose the nasal cavity ?

30 C. The Auditory Ossicles and Hyoid View Modules 10.17 Auditory Ossicles and 10.21 Hyoid. Module 10.21 Hyoid Hyoid bone Thyrohyoid membrane Thyrohyoid cartilage Module 10.17 Auditory Ossicles

31 1. As the auditory ossicles vibrate, they conduct sound to your hearing receptors. Which bones comprise the auditory ossicles? 2. As sound waves come in through the external auditory meatus, which auditory ossicle would the sound waves arrive at first? 3. What is the function of the hyoid bone?

32 D. The Vertebral Column The vertebral column consists of 24 vertebrae of different sizes and shapes. The primary function of the vertebrae is to protect the spinal cord. They are classified in groups based on their location. As you look at the different vertebrae, compare and contrast vertebrae from different regions in the body. Take note of the bone markings that are found in each type of vertebrae. Students often confuse processes and facets that have the same name. Remember the definitions for these terms: processes are bony projections, while facets are flat surfaces. After examining the following modules, identify the bone markings and answer the questions. 10.22 Vertebral Column 10.23 Vertebra 10.26 Cervical Spine 10.27 Cervical Spine Landmarks 10.28 Thoracic Spine 10.29 Thoracic Spine Landmarks 10.30 Lumbar Spine 10.31 Lumbar Spine Landmarks 10.32 Sacral Spine

33 Module 10.22 Vertebral Column Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Sacral spine

34 Module 10.27 Cervical Spine Landmarks Bifid spinous process Lamina Inferior articular process and facet Superior articular process and facet Vertebral foramen Body Transverse process Transverse foramen Pedicle Module 10.29 Thoracic Spine Landmarks Superior articular process and facet Vertebral foramen Body Superior costal facet Transverse process Spinous process Inferior costal facet Lamina Transverse costal facet Inferior notch

35 Module 10.31 Lumbar Spine Landmarks Superior articular process and facets Mamillary process Spinous process Lamina Vertebral arch Body Pedicle Transverse process Inferior notch Module 10.32 Sacral Spine Lumbar vertebrae Sacrum Coccyx

36 1. Cervical vertebrae are in the neck area, thoracic vertebrae are in the chest area on the back of the ribs, and lumbar vertebrae are in the small of the back. Identify the bone markings found in these different types of vertebrae. While all vertebrae share common characteristics, there are also markings that distinguish them from each other. Pay attention to these distinguishing characteristics so you can tell the difference between cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae just by looking at them. a. Examine Modules 10.26 Cervical Spine and 10.27 Cervical Spine Landmarks to learn about the cervical vertebrae. Identify the atlas (C1) and axis (C2) , as well as the following bone markings: i. Body ii. Vertebral arch iii. Pedicle iv. Lamina v. Inferior notch vi. Transverse process vii. Superior articular process and facet viii. Inferior articular process and facet ix. Bifid spinous process x. Transverse foramen xi. Vertebral foramen b. Examine Modules 10.28 Thoracic Spine and 10.29 Thoracic Spine Landmarks to learn about the thoracic vertebrae. Identify the following bone markings: i. Body ii. Vertebral arch iii. Pedicle v. Vertebral foramen vi. Inferior notch vii. Spinous process viii. Transverse process ix. Transverse costal facet x. Superior costal facet xi. Inferior costal facet

37 xii. Superior articular process and facet xiii. Inferior articular process and facet c. Examine Modules 10.30 Lumbar Spine and 10.31 Lumbar Spine Landmarks to learn about the lumbar vertebrae. Identify the following bone markings: i. Body ii. Vertebral arch iii. Pedicle iv. Lamina v. Vertebral foramen vi. Spinous process vii. Transverse process viii. Superior articular process and facet ix. Inferior articular process and facet x. Inferior notch d. How many cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae are there? e. Which bone markings enclose the spinal cord? f. What is the function of the costal facets of the thoracic vertebrae? g. What is the significance of the size of the body in lumbar vertebrae? h. What are the distinguishing characteristics of cervical vertebrae? 2. Examine Module 10.32 Sacral Spine to learn about the sacrum and coccyx , which are found in the pelvis in the inferior part of the vertebral column.

38 E. Thoracic Cage The thoracic cage protects important underlying organs, such as the heart and lungs. The bones also serve as attachment points for respiratory muscles. View Modules 10.34 Thoracic Cage (formerly 10.33), 10.35 Sternum (formerly 10.34), and 10.36 Ribs (formerly 10.35) and answer the following questions. Module 10.34 Thoracic Cage (formerly 10.33) Lung Heart Ribs Respiratory muscles Sternum

39 Module 10.35 Sternum (formerly 10.34) Manubrium Body of sternum Xiphoid process Module 10.36 Ribs (formerly 10.35) True ribs (1-7) False ribs (8-12)

40 1. Identify the following parts of the sternum : a. Manubrium b. Body of the sternum c. Xiphoid process 2. Identify the ribs a. Which ribs are true ribs ? Why are they classified as true ribs? b. Which ribs are false ribs ? Why are these classified as false ribs?

41 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER 1. What kinds of treatments would be effective for osteoporosis? 2. What is the purpose of fontanelles? 3. You identified the hard palate of the maxilla. Why was the soft palate not included in this exercise? 4. Where would be a good place for a lidocaine injection prior to dental work? You would want easy access to a blood vessel in the jaw. 5. If you have high cheekbones, to which bones does this refer? 6. Imagine that you are working as a medical examiner and a new body is brought in. The body appears to be healthy, except for a broken hyoid bone. What do you suspect is the cause of death? 7. Why does the thoracic cage need to be slightly flexible? 8. What are the four different places where ribs attach? TIME TO PRACTICE! GO TO THE QUIZZES MENU AND COMPLETE SKELETAL SYSTEM QUIZZES 8.A, 9.A, 10.A, AND 10.B.

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43 Module 7.2 Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

44 Module 8.1 Bone Types

45 9.15 Calcium in the Skeleton (formerly 9.13)

46 Module 10.2 Skull (Part 1)

47 Module 10.2 Skull (Part 2)

48 Module 10.4 Occipital Bone Landmarks

49 Module 10.5 Temporal Bone Landmarks

50 Module 10.6 Frontal Bone Landmarks

51 Module 10.7 Sphenoid Bone Landmarks (Part 1)

52 Module 10.7 Sphenoid Bone Landmarks (Part 2)

53 Module 10.8 Ethmoid Bone Landmarks

54 Module 10.11 Facial Skeleton I

55 Module 10.12 Maxilla Landmarks

56 Module 10.13 Mandible Landmarks

57 Module 10.14 Facial Skeleton II

58 Module 10.15 Palatine Bone Landmarks

59 Module 10.16 Lacrimal Bone Landmarks

60 Module 10.21 Hyoid

61 Module 10.22 Vertebral Column

62 Module 10.27 Cervical Spine Landmarks

63 Module 10.29 Thoracic Spine Landmarks

64 Module 10.31 Lumbar Spine Landmarks

65 Module 10.32 Sacral Spine

66 Module 10.34 Thoracic Cage (formerly 10.33)

67 Module 10.35 Sternum (formerly 10.34)

68 Module 10.36 Ribs (formerly 10.35)