Unit 6 Study Guide

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Unit 6 Chapter 10 Study Questions Although it may seem obvious that the statement “we are what we observe” is generally true, the experimental validation of this concept was delayed for many years. Thorndike had concluded that “nothing in my experience with these animals . . . favors the hypothesis that they have any general ability to learn to do things from seeing others do them” (as cited in Chance, 2014, p. 280). This opinion limited research until the realization that Thorndike’s conclusions were erroneous. 1. Describe Thorndike’s work with observational learning in animals. (pp. 280– 281) 2. What is social observational learning? What is vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment? (p. 281) Comment: Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment are types of vicarious learning procedures. In vicarious reinforcement, observing a model’s behaviour be rewarded increases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modelled behaviour. In vicarious punishment, observing a model’s behaviour be punished decreases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modelled behaviour. In vicarious avoidance, observing a model’s behaviour increases the likelihood that the observer will avoid a fearful situation. 3. Describe the work of Warden and his colleagues that demonstrated observational learning in animals. (p. 282) 4. Describe the research of Hopper et al. (2008). What was unique about their research? (p. 284) 5. Describe the research of Levy et al. (1974) and Kanfer et al. (1963) on observational learning and behavioural preferences. (pp. 285–286) 6. What is asocial observational learning? How is such represented in a formula? (p. 286) 7. What is a ghost condition? Illustrate with reference to the research of Thompson et al. (p. 287)

8. Is social learning truly social? Comment on this statement. (pp. 287–288) 9. Do people tend to imitate behaviour even when it is clearly irrelevant to producing reinforcement? Discuss with reference to the studies of Lyons et al. (2007). (pp. 289–290) 10.Describe the relationship between age and over-imitation. (p. 290) 11.Is the tendency to over-imitate harmful or beneficial? Describe the research of Heyes (2012). What is generalized imitation? (pp. 291–292) Comment: As children, we acquire a generalized imitative repertoire, which consists of the ability to imitate all kinds of novel acts without reinforcement for each instance of imitation. This generalized imitation ability is very important in allowing children to expand their range of abilities. Simply observing a behaviour can lead to acquiring that behaviour. As the author emphasizes, there is a dark side to this ability, because both appropriate and inappropriate behaviours (e.g., drug use and aggression) can be acquired. This problem is compounded by the high frequency of negative behaviours in the media. 12.Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influences vicarious learning: (a) difficulty of the task, (b) characteristics of the model, (c) characteristics of the observer, (d) consequences of the observed acts, (e) consequences of the observer’s behaviour. Describe Fisher and Harris’ (1976) study of the influence of the model’s physical characteristics and mood on vicarious learning. (pp. 292–298) 13.Describe Bandura’s social cognitive learning theory. (pp. 299–301) 14.Describe the operant learning model for observational learning. How does it view the basic processes of Bandura’s approach? What is the most significant weakness of this model? (pp. 301–302) 15.Describe the evidence that demonstrates the impact of observational learning on students with developmental disabilities. Refer to the research of Delgado et al. (2009). (pp. 303–305) 16.Describe the evidence that indicates that observational learning can prompt social change in non-human societies. (p. 306) 17.Describe the use of observational learning in health care. Comment on the research of Adams et al. (2006). (pp. 307–308) 18.What are the potential negatives of observational learning? (p. 309) In order to complete the short-answer questions on the Unit 6 Quiz and the final exam, it is essential that you understand the following concepts.

Modelling and Related Phenomena Several of the concepts in this exercise are not covered in your textbook. Use the following definitions: Vicarious reinforcement: An observer sees a model’s behaviour be rewarded, and this increases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modelled behaviour. Vicarious punishment: An observer sees a model’s behaviour be punished, and this decreases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modelled behaviour. Generalized imitation: Generalized imitation is the ability to imitate many different novel behaviours without reinforcement for each instance of imitation. Most children acquire generalized imitation at a relatively early age, enabling them to imitate actions they have not observed before simply by the act of observation. Peer modelling: Peer modelling is imitation of a model who is a peer, someone similar to the observer. For example, if a fourth grader is the model and another fourth grader is the observer-imitator, then acts of imitation are examples of peer modelling. Covert modelling: Covert modelling is imagining the act of imitation. For example, athletes sometimes prepare for contests by imagining themselves performing well. Covert modelling can be contrasted with overt modelling, which is demonstrating a response publicly. Participant modelling: Participant modelling is a form of modelling used with responses that are difficult to imitate in a single trial, such as directly encountering a highly feared object. Participant modelling breaks down the modelling process into a series of progressive steps from easy-to-imitate to difficult-to-imitate. Each step is modelled and the learner is required to imitate the model. If successful, the learner goes on to the next step. This continues until the most difficult step is modelled and imitated. Self-modelling: Self-modelling is a procedure in which an instance of a person’s desirable behaviour is taped (video and audio) and later replayed by that person, allowing the individual to imitate his or her own behaviour.

Examples For each illustration below, specify whether it is an example of modelling. Further specify the type of modelling (as applicable) as vicarious reinforcement, vicarious punishment, generalized imitation, peer modelling, covert modelling, participant modelling, or self-modelling. Choose as many as apply for each case. Below is a list of all possible options: a. modelling b. vicarious reinforcement c. vicarious punishment d. generalized imitation e. peer modelling f. covert modelling g. participant modelling h. self-modelling i. not an example of modelling 1. Three male university students participated as subjects in an unusual experiment. In an experimental room decorated to look like a barroom, a student assistant (who was working with the experimenter) drank beer with the three subjects. When the student assistant elevated his rate of beer drinking, the subjects elevated their rate of beer drinking. When the student assistant slowed his rate of beer drinking, this caused a decline in the rate of the subjects’ beer drinking. Analysis: This is modelling and peer modelling. The student assistant, who was a peer of the subjects, modelled a certain rate of beer consumption, which the subjects imitated. (Garlington & Dericco, 1977) 2. Patients under treatment for hypertension watched a video of ideal patients who disclosed pertinent facts and details about their medical problem to their physicians and asked their physicians relevant questions. In a study following the video showing, the hypertensive patients communicated much more effectively with their physicians than did a control group of patients who did not see the video. Analysis: This is modelling because the patients imitated the video’s demonstration of effective communication skills. (Anderson, DeVellis, & DeVellis, 1987)

3. Debbie taught swimming to children who had spina bifida, a disorder of the spinal cord that results in paralysis below the waist. When the children improved in an aspect of their swimming ability, a videographer recorded the improvement, which was then shown to the children repeatedly. This method caused the children to engage in correct swimming responses more often. Analysis: This is modelling because showing examples of desirable behaviours to children increased imitation of those behaviours. In this case, the children were both the models and the observers. When the same person both models and observes, this is called self-modelling. (Dowrick & Dove, 1980) 4. Young autistic boys were involved in research designed to improve their communication skills. During training, the boys observed videos of adults discussing toys the boys liked. After viewing the videos, the boys initiated the same discussion about the toys they had viewed on video. Data from the study showed that watching the video discussions improved the boys’ conversational skills. Analysis: This is modelling because watching the adults’ conversational skills strengthened responding by the observing boys. (Charlop & Milstein, 1989) 5. Two boys, aged 12 and 14, were subjects in research. These boys had never spoken English or Spanish words before the experiment. A researcher said English words (e.g., door , day , shampoo ) and reinforced the boys’ imitations of the words with praise and tokens. The researcher also included Spanish words (e.g., camisa , ventana , reloj ) among the English words, but did not reinforce the boys’ repetitions of the Spanish words. Nonetheless, the boys still imitated the Spanish words. Analysis: This is modelling and generalized imitation because the boys imitated responses (i.e., the Spanish words) for which they had not been trained and continued imitations of items that were not reinforced. (Burgess, Burgess, & Esveldt, 1970) 6. Young children attended a summer resort for children with diabetes. One group of the children viewed a video of older children giving themselves insulin injections, which control diabetes. A second group of the children viewed a video about good eating habits. After the children viewed the video,

the researchers trained both groups in how to inject themselves with insulin. They found that older children who had seen the self-injection video were able to self-administer insulin with more skill than those who had seen the video about good eating habits. Analysis: This is modelling as well as peer modelling. The older children imitated the videotaped models, which were peer models. (Gilbert et al., 1982) 7. Researchers did an experiment with female university students who had never done a breast self-exam. Group 1 watched a video showing the researcher doing a self-exam. Group 2 watched a video showing the researcher doing a breast exam using breasts on a mannequin. Group 3 saw a video on the topic of self-exams that didn’t demonstrate an exam. A month later, collected data showed that the women in Groups 1 and 2 were doing the self-exams more frequently than the women in Group 3, but that this pattern had dropped off by the 3-month follow-up. Analysis: This is modelling because the model’s display of the breast exam encouraged imitation among the observers. (Smith & Hailey, 1988) 8. Six-year-old Nathan is a mute, autistic boy. He was put into a special training project in which the researchers used behavioural procedures such as reinforcement, shaping, and fading to encourage speech, beginning with the word cup . After training, when the trainer said cup , Nathan was able to repeat it. Use of these training methods enabled Nathan to repeat new words that the researcher said. The researcher sometimes said Danish words, and Nathan was able to correctly repeat those words as well, without reinforcement. Analysis: This is modelling and generalized imitation. Because of reinforcement of prior imitation, Nathan could imitate different modelled words the first time he heard them. Also, reinforcement for each instance of imitation was not necessary for imitation to occur. (Lovaas, Berberich, Perloff, & Schaeffer, 1966) 9. Timid female university students enrolled in an assertiveness training course. The students read a series of fictional incidents in which people behaved assertively. For example, in one incident, an individual criticized the artistic work of a friend; in another, an individual asked a loud gum-chewer to chew

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