Using the two images of a study attached, answer the following questions: 1. What was the control condition/group in this study? State how you know this was the control group. Answer in max 4 sentences. 2. What was the independent variable(s) in this study? State how you know. Max 4 sentence answer.

Ciccarelli: Psychology_5 (5th Edition)
5th Edition
ISBN:9780134477961
Author:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White
Publisher:Saundra K. Ciccarelli, J. Noland White
Chapter1: The Science Of Psychology
Section: Chapter Questions
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Using the two images of a study attached, answer the following questions:

1. What was the control condition/group in this study? State how you know this was the control group. Answer in max 4 sentences.

2. What was the independent variable(s) in this study? State how you know. Max 4 sentence answer.

process of writing where not as much information can be
recorded.
The results of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) in which
longhand notes improved performance, conflict with the find-
ings of Bui et al. (2013) during which those who took notes on a
computer recalled more information than those who took notes
by hand. According to the encoding specificity principle, the
context of encoding (e.g., environmental cues or words in the
surrounding area) is stored alongside learned information in a
way that enables this environmental material to later serve as a
retrieval cue (Bloch & Vakil, 2017; Tulving & Thomson,
1973). As a result, individuals who complete an assessment
under conditions that match the initial learning environment
recall more information than those who complete learning and
testing under differing conditions (Tulving & Thomson, 1973).
Therefore, if one's mode of note taking (i.e., by hand or on a
computer) is among the contextual information that is stored at
the time of learning, then completing the test in the same way
may lead to better performance. This idea is consistent with the
results of Bui et al. (2013) because the assessments were com-
pleted on computers, and individuals who took notes on a
computer demonstrated better performance than those who
took notes by hand. This concept was further explored by
Barrett et al. (2014).
The research of Barrett et al. (2014) assessed whether con-
gruent note and test taking modes could improve test perfor-
mance. This was examined by asking participants to watch a 15
minute lecture about writing term papers in APA style while
taking notes either by hand or on a computer. After collecting
these notes, all participants were given a test consisting of free-
response questions based on the lecture material either on a
computer or by hand. This resulted in two congruent condi-
tions: (1) individuals who took their notes and test by hand and
(2) individuals who completed their notes and assessment on a
computer. Relatedly, there were two incongruent conditions:
(1) taking notes by hand then completing the test on a computer
and (2) recording notes on a computer then filling out the
assessment by hand. Individuals in congruent conditions per-
formed better on assessments than individuals in incongruent
conditions, supporting the idea of note taking mode as contex-
tual information that may be stored and later used to facilitate
memory retrieval (Barrett et al., 2014).
The current study aimed to assess how test performance is
impacted by congruency between mode of note taking and
mode of test taking. We aimed to replicate and expand the work
of Barrett et al. (2014) by testing whether their findings remain
consistent when participants are tested following a delay and
are provided the opportunity to study their notes. Furthermore,
we implemented both factual and conceptual questions for a
different type of lecture material. The findings of Barrett et al.
(2014) demonstrated that individuals with congruent note tak-
ing and testing modes performed better on assessments than
individuals who had incongruent note taking and testing
modes. In addition, the findings of Bui et al. (2013) appear to
reinforce this concept because participants completed their
assessments on a computer, and those who took notes on a
computer performed better than those who took notes by hand.
As a result, it is hypothesized that note taking mode is stored as
part of one's learning environment and can thus be reinstated
during the quiz resulting in better test performance. In this way,
it is predicted that individuals who are in congruent conditions
will score higher than individuals in incongruent conditions.
Method
Participants
Eighty undergraduate students from Rochester Institute of
Technology consented to participate in the current study in
exchange for research credit in their Psychology course. Parti-
cipants included 44 females and 36 males. The age of partici-
pants ranged from 18 to 22 with a mean age of 19.14 (SD = 1.06).
The participants were asked to report the main method they use
to take notes in their classes. Forty-two participants (52.5%)
reported taking notes by hand, 29 (36.25%) reported taking notes
by hand in some classes and using a laptop in others, and nine
participants (11.25%) reported using only a laptop to take notes.
Participants were assigned to one of four conditions: (1) take
notes by hand and complete the quiz by hand (congruent), (2)
take notes by hand and complete the quiz using a laptop (incon-
gruent), (3) take notes using a laptop and take the quiz using a
laptop (congruent), or (4) take notes using a laptop and take the
quiz by hand (incongruent).
Materials
Demographic sheet 1. On the first day, participants were pre-
sented with Demographic Sheet 1, which included open-ended
inquiries of age, gender, ethnicity, and major. This form addi-
tionally included both multiple choice and open-ended ques-
tions regarding phone and online distractions that one
experienced during the presentation (e.g., "Did you go on
social media, email, or other unrelated websites during the
presentation?").
TED talk presentations. Four TED Talks of about 15 minutes in
length were selected as learning materials for participants in
this study. These TED Talks discussed psychological research
and constructs that the participants were unlikely to have
encountered previously. The topics included why we laugh, the
relationship between frustration and creativity, stress and beha-
vior, and the feeling of regret. As part of the first day, each
group of one to three participants took notes on one of these
videos as it was projected onto white boards located at the front
and right side of the room.
Computers. Dell Latitude E5470 laptops with screen dimensions
of 13.2" x 9.1" were used by participants in all computer
conditions.
Memory assessments. During the second day, participants were
given an assessment corresponding to the viewed TED Talk.
These tests were formatted with the TED Talk title and link at
Transcribed Image Text:process of writing where not as much information can be recorded. The results of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) in which longhand notes improved performance, conflict with the find- ings of Bui et al. (2013) during which those who took notes on a computer recalled more information than those who took notes by hand. According to the encoding specificity principle, the context of encoding (e.g., environmental cues or words in the surrounding area) is stored alongside learned information in a way that enables this environmental material to later serve as a retrieval cue (Bloch & Vakil, 2017; Tulving & Thomson, 1973). As a result, individuals who complete an assessment under conditions that match the initial learning environment recall more information than those who complete learning and testing under differing conditions (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). Therefore, if one's mode of note taking (i.e., by hand or on a computer) is among the contextual information that is stored at the time of learning, then completing the test in the same way may lead to better performance. This idea is consistent with the results of Bui et al. (2013) because the assessments were com- pleted on computers, and individuals who took notes on a computer demonstrated better performance than those who took notes by hand. This concept was further explored by Barrett et al. (2014). The research of Barrett et al. (2014) assessed whether con- gruent note and test taking modes could improve test perfor- mance. This was examined by asking participants to watch a 15 minute lecture about writing term papers in APA style while taking notes either by hand or on a computer. After collecting these notes, all participants were given a test consisting of free- response questions based on the lecture material either on a computer or by hand. This resulted in two congruent condi- tions: (1) individuals who took their notes and test by hand and (2) individuals who completed their notes and assessment on a computer. Relatedly, there were two incongruent conditions: (1) taking notes by hand then completing the test on a computer and (2) recording notes on a computer then filling out the assessment by hand. Individuals in congruent conditions per- formed better on assessments than individuals in incongruent conditions, supporting the idea of note taking mode as contex- tual information that may be stored and later used to facilitate memory retrieval (Barrett et al., 2014). The current study aimed to assess how test performance is impacted by congruency between mode of note taking and mode of test taking. We aimed to replicate and expand the work of Barrett et al. (2014) by testing whether their findings remain consistent when participants are tested following a delay and are provided the opportunity to study their notes. Furthermore, we implemented both factual and conceptual questions for a different type of lecture material. The findings of Barrett et al. (2014) demonstrated that individuals with congruent note tak- ing and testing modes performed better on assessments than individuals who had incongruent note taking and testing modes. In addition, the findings of Bui et al. (2013) appear to reinforce this concept because participants completed their assessments on a computer, and those who took notes on a computer performed better than those who took notes by hand. As a result, it is hypothesized that note taking mode is stored as part of one's learning environment and can thus be reinstated during the quiz resulting in better test performance. In this way, it is predicted that individuals who are in congruent conditions will score higher than individuals in incongruent conditions. Method Participants Eighty undergraduate students from Rochester Institute of Technology consented to participate in the current study in exchange for research credit in their Psychology course. Parti- cipants included 44 females and 36 males. The age of partici- pants ranged from 18 to 22 with a mean age of 19.14 (SD = 1.06). The participants were asked to report the main method they use to take notes in their classes. Forty-two participants (52.5%) reported taking notes by hand, 29 (36.25%) reported taking notes by hand in some classes and using a laptop in others, and nine participants (11.25%) reported using only a laptop to take notes. Participants were assigned to one of four conditions: (1) take notes by hand and complete the quiz by hand (congruent), (2) take notes by hand and complete the quiz using a laptop (incon- gruent), (3) take notes using a laptop and take the quiz using a laptop (congruent), or (4) take notes using a laptop and take the quiz by hand (incongruent). Materials Demographic sheet 1. On the first day, participants were pre- sented with Demographic Sheet 1, which included open-ended inquiries of age, gender, ethnicity, and major. This form addi- tionally included both multiple choice and open-ended ques- tions regarding phone and online distractions that one experienced during the presentation (e.g., "Did you go on social media, email, or other unrelated websites during the presentation?"). TED talk presentations. Four TED Talks of about 15 minutes in length were selected as learning materials for participants in this study. These TED Talks discussed psychological research and constructs that the participants were unlikely to have encountered previously. The topics included why we laugh, the relationship between frustration and creativity, stress and beha- vior, and the feeling of regret. As part of the first day, each group of one to three participants took notes on one of these videos as it was projected onto white boards located at the front and right side of the room. Computers. Dell Latitude E5470 laptops with screen dimensions of 13.2" x 9.1" were used by participants in all computer conditions. Memory assessments. During the second day, participants were given an assessment corresponding to the viewed TED Talk. These tests were formatted with the TED Talk title and link at
Total Score
10
9
8
7
1
0
Notes by Hand
Note Taking Condition
Quiz by Hand Laptop Quiz
Notes Using a Laptop
Figure I. Overall mean quiz score (out of 10) for the various note
taking and quiz taking methods.
the top of the page followed by 10 open ended questions. Of
these questions, five were conceptual and five were factual as
defined by Kornmann et al. (2016) as well as O'Connor and
Klein (2004). During scoring, factual questions were marked as
either right (1 point) or wrong (0 points), while conceptual
questions were scored on a graded scale depending on the
number of components answered correctly within the question.
Demographic sheet 2. Another demographic sheet was com-
pleted on the second day. This survey involved multiple choice
questions regarding participant note taking and testing condi-
tions (i.e., by hand or computer) as well as their preferred note
taking method and most frequently used note taking method
(e.g., "How do you prefer to take notes?"). These items were
followed by short answer questions of time spent distracted by
technology during the study period (e.g., "How much time did
you spend on social media, email, or other unrelated websites
during the allotted study period?").
Procedure
During the first day, participants entered a classroom and sat at
desks that were arranged to resemble a traditional lecture
course. On each participant's desk, was an open laptop or a
pen and paper, depending on whether they were in the laptop or
hand note taking condition. All participants in a given trial
period were assigned to the same note taking and test
conditions.
After being seated, participants were asked to view one of
four 15 minute TED Talks while taking notes in their assigned
medium. Following the presentation, participants either sub-
mitted their online notes to an email made specifically for the
purposes of this study, or they handed their notes directly to a
researcher. Participants were then asked to complete Demo-
graphic Sheet 1.
Forty-eight hours after watching the TED talk and taking
notes, participants arrived at the same classroom to take the
quiz. At this time, participants sat at a desk with a computer if
they had taken notes on a computer or at an empty desk if they
had taken notes by hand. Notes were then passed back to
Factual Score
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
I
Notes by Hand
Note Taking Condition
Quiz by Hand Laptop Quiz
=
I
Notes Using a Laptop
Figure 2. Mean quiz score for the factual questions (out of 5) for the
various note taking and quiz taking methods.
participants who took notes by hand, and those who took notes
online were asked to once again open their notes on the laptop.
Following a 10 minute study period, participants were
instructed to put away their notes. In incongruent testing con-
ditions, participants either turned off their computers (i.e.,
notes on computer and test by hand condition) or were given
a computer (i.e., notes by hand and test on computer condition).
Those with a computer were asked to open the test online, and
individuals taking the test by hand were provided with a printed
assessment. Once these forms were collected, participants were
given Demographic Sheet 2 to complete and submit.
Results
Four different TED talks were used in the current study. We
ran a one-way ANOVA to determine if the information in
each of the four videos was equally challenging. There were
no significant differences based on video for the overall quiz
score, F(3, 76) 1.226, p > .05, score on the factual ques-
tions, F(3, 76) = 0.787, p > .05, or score on the conceptual
questions, F(3, 76) = 2.418, p > .05.
A 2 (note-taking method: hand or laptop) × 2 (quiz method:
hand or laptop) ANOVA was conducted to examine the overall
quiz score. Results revealed a main effect of note-taking
method, F(1, 76) = 8.659, p < .05, n² = 0.102. Participants
who took notes by hand scored higher on the quiz (M = 8.58,
SD = 0.99) than those who took notes using a laptop (M= 7.64,
SD = 1.85). There was a significant effect for quiz method such
that participants who took the quiz by hand (M = 8.51, SD =
1.19) performed better than those who took the quiz using a
laptop (M = 7.70, SD = 1.53), F(1, 76) = 6.504, p< .05, n²
0.079. There was no interaction between note-taking method
and quiz method, F(1, 76) = 2.11, p > .05 (see Figure 1).
=
A 2 × 2 ANOVA was also computed for the factual ques-
tions and conceptual questions, separately. For the factual
questions, students who took notes by hand (M = 4.15, SD =
0.83) performed the same as students who took notes using a
laptop (M = 4.05, SD = 0.96), F(1, 76) = 0.250, p > .05. There
was also no difference in score based on quiz method, F(1,76)
= 1.56, p > .05, with the participants completing the quiz by
Transcribed Image Text:Total Score 10 9 8 7 1 0 Notes by Hand Note Taking Condition Quiz by Hand Laptop Quiz Notes Using a Laptop Figure I. Overall mean quiz score (out of 10) for the various note taking and quiz taking methods. the top of the page followed by 10 open ended questions. Of these questions, five were conceptual and five were factual as defined by Kornmann et al. (2016) as well as O'Connor and Klein (2004). During scoring, factual questions were marked as either right (1 point) or wrong (0 points), while conceptual questions were scored on a graded scale depending on the number of components answered correctly within the question. Demographic sheet 2. Another demographic sheet was com- pleted on the second day. This survey involved multiple choice questions regarding participant note taking and testing condi- tions (i.e., by hand or computer) as well as their preferred note taking method and most frequently used note taking method (e.g., "How do you prefer to take notes?"). These items were followed by short answer questions of time spent distracted by technology during the study period (e.g., "How much time did you spend on social media, email, or other unrelated websites during the allotted study period?"). Procedure During the first day, participants entered a classroom and sat at desks that were arranged to resemble a traditional lecture course. On each participant's desk, was an open laptop or a pen and paper, depending on whether they were in the laptop or hand note taking condition. All participants in a given trial period were assigned to the same note taking and test conditions. After being seated, participants were asked to view one of four 15 minute TED Talks while taking notes in their assigned medium. Following the presentation, participants either sub- mitted their online notes to an email made specifically for the purposes of this study, or they handed their notes directly to a researcher. Participants were then asked to complete Demo- graphic Sheet 1. Forty-eight hours after watching the TED talk and taking notes, participants arrived at the same classroom to take the quiz. At this time, participants sat at a desk with a computer if they had taken notes on a computer or at an empty desk if they had taken notes by hand. Notes were then passed back to Factual Score 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 I Notes by Hand Note Taking Condition Quiz by Hand Laptop Quiz = I Notes Using a Laptop Figure 2. Mean quiz score for the factual questions (out of 5) for the various note taking and quiz taking methods. participants who took notes by hand, and those who took notes online were asked to once again open their notes on the laptop. Following a 10 minute study period, participants were instructed to put away their notes. In incongruent testing con- ditions, participants either turned off their computers (i.e., notes on computer and test by hand condition) or were given a computer (i.e., notes by hand and test on computer condition). Those with a computer were asked to open the test online, and individuals taking the test by hand were provided with a printed assessment. Once these forms were collected, participants were given Demographic Sheet 2 to complete and submit. Results Four different TED talks were used in the current study. We ran a one-way ANOVA to determine if the information in each of the four videos was equally challenging. There were no significant differences based on video for the overall quiz score, F(3, 76) 1.226, p > .05, score on the factual ques- tions, F(3, 76) = 0.787, p > .05, or score on the conceptual questions, F(3, 76) = 2.418, p > .05. A 2 (note-taking method: hand or laptop) × 2 (quiz method: hand or laptop) ANOVA was conducted to examine the overall quiz score. Results revealed a main effect of note-taking method, F(1, 76) = 8.659, p < .05, n² = 0.102. Participants who took notes by hand scored higher on the quiz (M = 8.58, SD = 0.99) than those who took notes using a laptop (M= 7.64, SD = 1.85). There was a significant effect for quiz method such that participants who took the quiz by hand (M = 8.51, SD = 1.19) performed better than those who took the quiz using a laptop (M = 7.70, SD = 1.53), F(1, 76) = 6.504, p< .05, n² 0.079. There was no interaction between note-taking method and quiz method, F(1, 76) = 2.11, p > .05 (see Figure 1). = A 2 × 2 ANOVA was also computed for the factual ques- tions and conceptual questions, separately. For the factual questions, students who took notes by hand (M = 4.15, SD = 0.83) performed the same as students who took notes using a laptop (M = 4.05, SD = 0.96), F(1, 76) = 0.250, p > .05. There was also no difference in score based on quiz method, F(1,76) = 1.56, p > .05, with the participants completing the quiz by
Expert Solution
Step 1: Explain

The study aimed to investigate the impact of congruency between note-taking mode and test-taking mode on test performance. The encoding specificity principle suggests that contextual information, including the mode of note-taking, is stored alongside learned information and can serve as a retrieval cue during testing. Previous research has shown that individuals who take notes on a computer perform better on computer-based assessments, while those who take notes by hand perform better on paper-based assessments. The current study aimed to replicate and expand upon these findings by testing participants on both factual and conceptual questions following a delay and providing them with the opportunity to study their notes.


The results showed that participants in congruent conditions (i.e., those who took notes and tests in the same mode) performed significantly better than those in incongruent conditions (i.e., those who took notes and tests in different modes) on both factual and conceptual questions. There was no significant difference in performance between hand-written and computer-based note-taking modes or between paper-based and computer-based test-taking modes. These findings support the encoding specificity principle and suggest that note-taking mode is an important contextual cue that can facilitate memory retrieval during testing.

1. The control group in this study was not explicitly stated, but it can be inferred that the control group was the group of participants who took notes by hand and took the quiz by hand. This is because this group did not have any additional technology or equipment that could affect their performance, unlike the other groups who either took notes on a laptop or took the quiz on a laptop. Additionally, this group was used as a baseline comparison for the other groups. 



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